6 Memory.pdf

Memory Chapter 6  Table of contents 01 02 03 Memory and its Models of Memory Long-term Memories Processes 04 05 Forgetting Neuro...

Memory Chapter 6  Table of contents 01 02 03 Memory and its Models of Memory Long-term Memories Processes 04 05 Forgetting Neuroscience of Memory 01 Memory Memory and its Processes An active system that receives information from the senses, organizes and alters that information as it stores it away, and then retrieves the information from storage. Memory and its Processes Processes of Memory Encoding - the set of mental operations that people perform on sensory information to convert that information into a form that is usable in the brain's storage systems Storage - holding onto information for some period of time Retrieval: getting information that is in storage into a form that can be used 02 Models of Memory Models of Memory Information-processing model Assumes that the processing of information for memory storage is similar to the way a computer processes memory—in a series of three stages  Models of Memory Parallel distributed processing (PDP) model Memory processes are proposed to take place at the same time over a large network of neural connections Models of Memory Levels-of-processing model Assumes that information that is more “deeply processed”—or processed according to its meaning, rather than just the sound or physical characteristics of the word or words— will be remembered more efficiently and for a longer period of time Sensery Memory: Why do people do double takes? Sensory Memory The very first stage of memory The point at which information enters the nervous system through the sensory systems  Sensory Memory Iconic Memory Visual sensory memory, lasting only a fraction of a second Capacity - everything that can be seen at onetime duration: information that has just entered iconic memory will be pushed out very quickly by new information, a process called masking. Eidetic Imagery the (rare) ability to access a visual memory for thirty seconds or more  Sensory Memory Echoic Memory The brief memory of something a person has just heard Capacity - limited to what can be heard at anyone moment; smaller than the capacity of iconic memory Duration - lasts longer than iconic; about two to four seconds  Short-Term Memory Short-term Memory (STM) The memory system in which information is held for brief periods of time while being used Selective attention - the ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input  Short-Term Memory Working Memory An active system that processes the information in short-term memory  Short-Term Memory Digit-span test A series of numbers is read to subjects who are then asked to recall the numbers in order Conclusion - capacity of STM is about seven items or pieces of information, plus or minus two items—or from five to nine bits of information. “magical number” =7  Short-Term Memory Chunking Bits of information are combined into meaningful units, or chunks, so that more information can beheld in STM Maintenance rehearsal Saying bits of information to be remembered over and over in one’s head in order to maintain it in short-term memory (STMs tend to been coded in auditory form)  Short-Term Memory STM lasts from about twelve to thirty seconds without rehearsal STM is susceptible to interference e.g., if counting is interrupted, one will have to start over 03 Long-Term Memory 03 Long-Term Memory  Long-Term Memory Long-Term Memory (LTM) The memory system into which all the information is placed to be kept more or less permanently Elaborative rehearsal a method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way  Types of LTM Nondeclarative (implicit) memory Type of long-term memory including memory for skills, procedures, habits, and conditioned responses These memories are not conscious, but their existence is implied because they affect conscious behavior Also include emotional associations, habits, and simple conditioned reflexes that may or may not be in conscious awareness  Types of LTM Procedural memory (often called implicit memory) Memory that is not easily brought into conscious awareness Anterograde amnesia - loss of memory from the point of injury or trauma forward, or the inability to form new long-term memories usually does NOT affect procedural LTM  Types of LTM Declarative (explicit) memory type of long-term memory containing information that is conscious and known memory for facts  Declarative (Explicit) LTM All the things that people know Semantic memory - declarative memory containing general knowledge knowledge of language, information learned informal education Episodic memory - declarative memory containing personal information not readily available to others daily activities and events  Organization of Memory LTM is organized in terms of related meanings and concepts Semantic network model - assumes that information is stored in the brain in a connected fashion concepts that are related stored physically closer to each other than to unrelated concepts  Cues to Help Remember Retrieval cue - stimulus for remembering Priming can occur where experience with information or concepts can improve later performance Encoding specificity – the tendency for memory of information to be improved if related information (e.g., surroundings or physiological state)available when the memory was first formed is also available when the memory is being retrieved Context-dependent learning - refer to the physical surroundings a person is in when they are learning specific information. State-dependent learning - memories formed during a particular physiological or psychological state will be easier to recall while in a similar state.  Recall Recall Memory retrieval in which the information to be retrieved must be “pulled” from memory with very few external cues Retrieval failure Recall has failed (at least temporarily) tip of the tongue (TOT) phenomenon 1. Cat 9. Box 2. Apple 10.Car 3. Ball 11. King 4. Tree 12.Hammer 5. Square 13.Milk 6. Head 14.Fish 7. House 15.Book 8. Door  Recall Serial position effect information at the beginning and the end of a body of information more accurately remembered than the information in the middle Primacy effect - tendency to remember information at the beginning of a body of information better than what follows Recency effect - tendency to remember information at the end of a body of information better than the information ahead of it  Recognition Recognition ability to match a piece of information or a stimulus to a stored image or fact False positive error of recognition in which people think that they recognize a stimulus that is not actually in memory Automatic Encoding and Flashbulb Memories Automatic encoding tendency of certain kinds of information to enter long-term memory with little or no effortful encoding Flashbulb memories automatic encoding that occurs because an unexpected event has strong emotional associations for the person remembering it  How LTMs are formed Constructive processing memory retrieval process in which memories are “built,” or reconstructed, from information stored during encoding with each retrieval, memories may be altered, revised, or influenced by newer information  How LTMs are formed Hindsight bias the tendency to falsely believe, through revision of older memories to include newer information, that one could have correctly predicted the outcome of an event “Monday morning quarterbacking”  Memory Retrieval Problems Misinformation effect tendency of misleading information presented after anevent to alter the memories of the event itself  Reliability of Memory Retrieval False memory syndrome - creation of inaccurate or false memories through the suggestion of others, often while the person is under hypnosis Evidence suggests that false memories cannot be created for just any kind of memory memories must at least be plausible. 04 Forgetting  Forgetting: Ebbinghaus Curve of forgetting a graph showing a distinct pattern in which forgetting is very fast within the first hour after learning a list and then tapers off gradually Distributed practice - spacing one’s study sessions produces better retrieval Massed practice - studying a complete body of information all at once  Forgetting: Ebbinghaus Curve of forgetting a graph showing a distinct pattern in which forgetting is very fast within the first hour after learning a listand then tapers off gradually Distributed practice - spacing one’s study sessions produces better retrieval Massed practice - studying a complete body of information all at once  Forgetting: Encoding Failure Encoding failure Failure to process information into memory  Forgetting: Memory Trace Theory Memory trace Physical change in the brain that occurs when a memory is formed Decay - loss of memory due to the passage of time, during which the memory trace is not used Disuse - another name for decay, assuming that memories that are not used will eventually decay and disappear Memories recalled after many years are not explained by memory trace theory  Forgetting: Interference Theory Proactive interference Memory retrieval problem that occurs when older information prevents or interferes with the retrieval of newer information Retroactive interference Memory retrieval problem that occurs when newer information prevents or interferes with the retrieval of older information 05 Neuroscience and Memory  Formation of LTMs Consolidation changes that take place in the structure and functioning of neurons when a memory is formed Long-term potentiation - changes in number and sensitivity of receptor sites/synapses through repeated stimulation Hippocampus - area of brain responsible for the formation of LTMs see the case of H.M.  Amnesia Retrograde amnesia Loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backwards, or loss of memory for the past Anterograde amnesia Loss of memory from the point of injury or trauma forward, or the inability to form new long-term memories “senile dementia” The case of H.M.  Alzheimer’s Disease Risk factors include high cholesterol high blood pressure Smoking Obesity Type Il diabetes lack of exercise  Alzheimer’s Disease Infantile amnesia The inability to retrieve memories from much before age three Autobiographical memory - the memory for events and facts related to one’s personal life story (usually after age three)  Health and Memory Sleep is important in forming memories memories rehearsed during sleep as well as during waking are more likely to be consolidated one can't learn something new while sleeping, but new information can be better consolidated while sleeping sleep deprivation severely interferes with hippocampal function and memory Even brief exercise can be good for your memory Fish is brain food? omega-3 fatty acid called DHA (docosahexaenoic acid)appears to help memory cells communicate