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This document provides an introduction to art history, tracing the evolution of artistic styles and movements from prehistoric times to the present. It explores various art forms, including landscape paintings, readymades, and earthworks, highlighting the influence of social, cultural, and historical contexts on artistic expression. Key concepts like formal and contextual analysis, and the works of notable artists and art historians are also examined.
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Introduction Prehistoric cave paintings mostly feature animals. Roman mural paintings: depict cultivated gardens Chinese Ink paintings: mountains and forests All of this for 2 Millenia Landscape paintings (modern) ○ 17th century - present ○ Established in Europe...
Introduction Prehistoric cave paintings mostly feature animals. Roman mural paintings: depict cultivated gardens Chinese Ink paintings: mountains and forests All of this for 2 Millenia Landscape paintings (modern) ○ 17th century - present ○ Established in Europe Then, it spread around the world In the 20th century, artists aimed to close the gap between art and real life ○ Marchel Duchamp Bought a snow shovel in 1915 (during WW1) in New York City Displayed in “In Advance of a Broken Arm” ○ This is what he called a Readymade Readymades: objects from places like hardware stores and domestic homes In 1925 after the Russian Revolution (formation of communist government) ○ Artists in Russia who were associated with the Constructivist movement sought to further merge art and life by applying their abstract of art to clothing fabric and kitchen tools. Abstract: Skeleton or outline of something 1960’s artists in New York ○ Broke away from traditional forms of art like painting and sculpture ○ Transitioned to performance art These performances were influenced by common activities Example: ○ Opening a door Main point was that art should also include activities materials and concerns of everyday life. Historical Context: ○ 1960s and 1970s saw increased environmental awareness. ○ Influences included Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring, the 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill, and the first Earth Day. This led to a new art: Earthworks Earthworks Movement: ○ Emergence: New art form altering the landscape directly, unlike traditional landscape painting. ○ Characteristics: Site-specific; intended to exist only in the original location and cannot be relocated. ○ Notable Examples: Spiral Jetty by Robert Smithson: Spiral of rock and dirt in the Great Salt Lake. Double Negative by Michael Heizer: Two massive cuts into a mesa in Nevada. Site-Specificity: ○ Artworks designed for a specific location. ○ Documentation (photos, diagrams) is used to share these works with wider audiences in galleries and museums. Earthworks aimed to connect art with the natural environment by physically altering it. However, while Earthworks were inspired by the growing concern for the environment, many of the early pieces actually harmed the environment. Despite being influenced by environmental awareness, these artworks didn’t always follow the ethical values of protecting nature. The discussion of environmentalist art and environmentalism began in the modern environmental movement of the 1960s and 1970s Contemporary Eco Art: ○ Emerged during the modern environmental movement of the 1960s and 1970s. ○ Aims to create positive change by directly addressing climate and ecological issues. ○ Differs from traditional landscape art (which depicted nature) and early Earthworks (which sometimes harmed the environment). Connection to Art History: ○ Contemporary eco art builds on past art traditions, such as landscape painting, performance art, and Earthworks. ○ Uses new strategies that link human experience with environmental goals. Broadened Focus: ○ Now includes considerations of social and racial equity related to ecological change. ○ Addresses histories of settlement and colonization. ○ Incorporates new technologies to communicate climate science and inspire future generations. Section 1 Art history is an academic discipline dedicated to the reconstruction of the: ○ Social ○ Cultural ○ Economic ○ Historical Art history is closely related to ○ Anthropology ○ History ○ Sociology ○ Aesthetics The philosophical inquiry into the nature and expression of beauty ○ Art criticism The explanation of current art events to the general public via the press Art historians today broadly define "art" as almost any visual material created by people that has special meaning or is valued for its beauty. In the past artists limited themselves to “fine art” Usually produced specifically for appreciation by an audience that also understands these objects as works of art. ○ This includes: Paintings Prints Drawings Sculpture Architecture Today art that was previously identified as “craft”: ○ Textiles ○ Pottery ○ Body art tattoos Art historians also study objects not traditionally viewed as art. ○ Includes mass-produced posters and advertisements. ○ Encompasses the design of everyday household items like telephones, forks, and sofas. Different Interpretations: Michelangelo’s Sistine Chapel paintings would have held different significance for: ○ Example 1: The Pope: With theological knowledge and exclusive access to the space. A Worker: Who cleaned the chapel and likely had limited literacy. ○ Example 2 Twenty-first-century Protestants, Muslims, or atheists. Compared to a sixteenth-century practicing Catholic. Admiration vs. Meaning: ○ While all viewers might admire the paintings for their aesthetic value, their personal and historical contexts affect their interpretation. Meaning of Art: ○ The meaning of a work of art is not fixed. ○ It is open to multiple interpretations based on factors such as historical context and the viewer’s background. Art Historical Inquiry: ○ Art historians use two main approaches: formal analysis and contextual analysis. Formal Analysis: Focuses on the visual qualities of the artwork itself. Assumes that the artist’s visual decisions can reveal meaning. Meaning is considered intrinsic to the work of art. Requires skills in observation and description. Keeps the focus on the artwork itself, which is primary. Contextual Analysis: Examines the artwork’s historical, cultural, and social context. Considers factors like the artist’s background, the audience, and the time period. Helps understand how external influences affect the meaning and reception of the artwork. Focus: Looks outside the artwork itself to determine its meaning. Includes: ○ The context in which the artwork was created. ○ Later contexts in which the artwork was consumed. ○ Factors Examined: Cultural, social, religious, and economic contexts. Issues such as patronage, viewer access, and the artwork’s physical location. The cost of the artwork and its subject matter in relation to other artworks of the time. Chronological Development: ○ Art history often tracks the evolution of art over time. ○ Assumes that one generation of artists influences the next. Comparative Study: ○ Art historians use comparisons to understand unique features and stylistic changes. Example: Comparing Gothic and Renaissance art to see how styles evolved. Historical Context: ○ Art history links artworks to their cultural and historical backgrounds. ○ Provides insights into the meaning and significance of the works. ○ Connects artworks to the broader history of events leading up to the present culture. Direct Examination: ○ Art historians ideally examine the original work of art. ○ Direct examination provides a better understanding of scale, three-dimensional qualities, texture, and colors. Limitations of Reproductions: ○ Reproductions can lose texture, rich colors, and depth. ○ Photographs and other reproductions may appear flatter and lack subtle transitions. Practical Constraints: ○ Due to practical issues, art historians often study reproductions. ○ Some artworks may be damaged, lost, or inaccessible, leading historians to rely on earlier descriptions. Additional Sources: ○ Art historians also study associated materials such as sketches and preparatory models. ○ They examine other works by the artist and their contemporaries to gain a fuller understanding. Written Sources: ○ Art historians use various written sources for contextual information. ○ These sources are often found in archives or libraries. Types of Archival Sources: ○ Letters between the artist and patron. ○ Documents related to the commission of the artwork. ○ Art criticism from the time the artwork was created. Additional Documentation: ○ Information about the materials used, including cost and source. ○ Details about the function of the artwork, such as its use in rituals. Contextual Placement: Art historians place the work in the broader context of literature, music, theater, and history of the time period. Interviews: ○ Art historians may conduct interviews with artists and art consumers. ○ This is particularly important in cultures with strong oral traditions rather than written records. Participant Observation: ○ Influenced by anthropology, art historians use participant observation to understand art contexts. ○ Example: Studying masquerade traditions in West Africa by participating in and documenting performances to gain insights into art traditions. Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE): ○ Roman historian. ○ Wrote Natural History, analyzing both historical and contemporary art. ○ Early attempt at art commentary. Giorgio Vasari (1511–74): ○ Renaissance artist and writer. ○ Authored The Lives of the Artists, a collection of biographies of Italian artists. ○ Emphasized the changing roles of artists and the concept of artistic genius. Eighteenth-Century Enlightenment Influence: ○ Shift towards a more systematic study of art history. ○ Emphasis on understanding art within its historical and cultural context. Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717–68): ○ German scholar. ○ Moved away from Vasari’s biographical focus. ○ Introduced rigorous analysis of stylistic development in art, linked to historical context. Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries: ○ Further development of art history methods. ○ Increased focus on the interrelationship between a work's formal qualities (e.g., composition, color, technique) and its context. ○ This approach forms the basis of modern art history. Bias in Histories: ○ Art history reflects individual biases, often favoring white male artists and patrons. Recent Revisions: ○ Feminist historians have challenged traditional narratives, leading to more inclusive perspectives. Broader Scope: ○ The field is now more international, multicultural, and includes Marxist, feminist, and psychoanalytic methods. Shift in Focus: ○ Less emphasis on "great geniuses"; now includes a broader range of visual culture, like ads, film, and TV. Surviving Artifacts: ○ Early life on earth is studied through enduring artifacts (stone, metal, fired clay). ○ Environmental conditions greatly affect preservation (e.g., Egypt's dry climate vs. West Africa's humidity). Western Focus in Art History: ○ Western cultures are often emphasized because their art has been better preserved. ○ Non-Western cultures may be underrepresented due to fewer surviving artifacts. Unexplored Sites: ○ Many important sites, especially in Central and South America, remain unexplored. ○ Some artifacts have been lost due to exploitation and destruction of the antiquities market. Old Stone Age (Upper Paleolithic Period) ○ Chauvet Cave Paintings: The oldest known works of art, discovered in 1994 in southeastern France, dating back to 30,000 BCE (Old Stone Age). Except for minimal use of yellow, created with red ochre and black charcoal, depicting animals like horses, rhinoceros, lions, buffalos, and mammoths. Initially thought to be primitive scribbling, but later recognized as skilled, traditional art. ○ Other Cave Paintings: Found in Lascaux and Altamira (France and Spain). Initially thought to be scribbling of primitive cavemen. Large colored animal drawings and human hand outlines, created with red and yellow ochre to add color to the black charcoal outlines horses, bears, lions, bison, and mammoths, ○ Small Stone Female Figures: Example: Venus of Willendorf (28,000–25,000 BCE). Features exaggerated female body parts, likely representing fertility figures. bellies, breasts, and pubic areas. Details like facial features, arms, and feet are either undefined or missing. four and one-eighth inches high. Middle Stone Age Art: ○ Occurred during the warming climate of the Mesolithic Period. ○ Transition from cave dwellings to rock shelters, with paintings found in eastern Spain. Dating and Style: ○ Paintings generally dated from around 7000 BCE to 4000 BCE. ○ Skillful depictions of animals similar to Paleolithic cave art. Human Figures: ○ Unlike earlier cave paintings, rock shelter art includes human figures, both alone and in groups. ○ Emphasis on scenes where humans dominate animals. Except for one human figure found in the paintings at Lascaux, cave paintings did not include any human beings. Art of the New Stone Age (Neolithic Period) ○ Key Characteristics: Stone Arrangements: Art from the New Stone Age is characterized by rings or rows of rough-hewn stones, called megaliths ("great stones"), found mainly in Western Europe. These formations date back as early as 4000 BCE. ○ Stonehenge: Location: Stonehenge, on Salisbury Plain in Wiltshire, England, is the most famous of these megalithic structures. Construction: Built in phases around 2100 BCE, Stonehenge features concentric rings made with sarsen stones (a form of sandstone) and smaller "bluestones" native to the area. The outer ring consists of huge sarsen stones in post and lintel construction (two upright stones topped by a horizontal lintel). Inside, a horseshoe-shaped arrangement of five lintel-topped sarsen stones, some weighing up to 50 tons, is encircled by bluestones. The Heel-Stone: Positioned outside the main formation to the northeast, the "heel-stone" marks the point where the sun rises on the midsummer solstice when viewed from the center of the rings. ○ Conditions for Art Creation and Survival: Cultural Support: Art typically flourishes in organized cultures with stable populations and ruling classes that support artists. Protection and Preservation: Artworks are more likely to survive when protected in locations like burial chambers, caves, or tombs, where they are naturally concealed and safeguarded from the elements. Ancient Mesopatamia ○ Between tigris and euphrates rivers. ○ Developed writing and art in parallel with egypt ○ Mesopotamia was prone to invasion since they didn't have any natural barriers (mountains, desserts) that protected egypt. ○ Mesopotamian art was made with perishable materials so there isn't much art preserved. ○ 4000 BCE: Sumerians in Mesopotamia created building and sculptures. ○ Religion was important to sumerian life. (built Massive temples at center of city) ○ Less complex structures evolved over time into ziggurats (stepped pyramid) ○ 2334 BCE: cities of sumer came under rule of Sargon of Akkad. ○ Even though akkadians spoke different languages they assimilated with the Sumerians. ○ Art of this period puts emphasis on monarchy. Kings depicted in the relief sculptures. ○ 2150 BCE: Akkadian rule came to an end as the Guti took control ○ 50 years later sumerians cities reasserted power and a neo-sumerian ruler was established King of Ur. ○ Ziggurats were: At the center of the city Mainly used as temples Also served and administrative and economic centers ○ Babylonians in Mesopotamia 1792 BCE: king Hammurabi was able to centralize power. Babylonian law = Code of Hammurabi Oldest legal code ever known Best known art work: Stone Stele that had hammurabi's code carved into it. With a sculpture at the top that shows Hammurabi getting insight from sun god: Shamash ○ Preserved in the Louvre Museum ○ The Sumerian, Akkadian, and Babylonian ruled in the south Assyrians: ruled in the north 900 - 600 BCE: most powerful in the near east There art work often depicted: Relief carvings: ○ Battles ○ Sieges ○ Hunts ○ Important Events ○ In the seventh century BCE, Assyrian power weakened. ○ From 612–538 BCE, Babylonia became dominant. ○ The Neo-Babylonian period saw significant construction projects. ○ The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were built. ○ The Ishtar Gate was constructed as the gateway to the ziggurat of the temple of Bel. ○ The Ishtar Gate is a notable architectural work with superimposed animal figures. Persian Art ○ Persian Empire (538-330 BCE) (present-day Iran) ○ Most notable for Architectural Achievements: Palace at Persepolis (present day IRAN) (influence of Egypt) Constructed with: ○ Stone ○ Brick ○ Wood CHAT-GPT Ancient Egyptian Art ○ Timeline: 3000 BCE to 332 BCE (conquest by Alexander the Great) ○ Key Monuments: The Sphinx Pyramids at Giza Larger-than-life statues of pharaohs Portrait head of Queen Nefertiti ○ Hierarchical Scale: Style emphasizing the status of figures/objects to determine size in artwork Example: Palette of King Narmer Central figure: King Narmer depicted larger than others Main image: Narmer holding a fallen enemy, arm raised to deliver a deathblow Lower section: Smaller figures of defeated enemies ○ Fractional Representation: Artistic technique to show each body part clearly Head in profile with the eye frontal, torso frontal, lower body in profile Standardized style enduring for centuries ○ Preservation and Burial Customs: Excellent conditions for preserving art in Egypt Burial customs: mummification, entombment with furnishings, servants, jewelry Tutankhamun’s Tomb: Discovered intact in 1922 Contained a treasure-trove of superbly crafted objects Burial Mask: ○ Found on the mummy's face and shoulders ○ Made of gold, decorated with blue glass and semiprecious stones ○ Presents an idealized portrait of Tutankhamun Nubian Art ○ Location: Kingdom of Nubia, south of Egypt, covering a large area of Africa. ○ Historical Context: Nubia ruled Egypt during a certain period. Pharaohs of that era were Nubian. ○ Current Knowledge: Growing interest in revising and expanding art history. Increased knowledge about Nubian civilization. Few collections of Nubian art currently, but this may change with ongoing revisions in art history. Cycladic, Minoan, and Mycenaean Art ○ Cycladic Culture: Timeline: 3200 to 2000 BCE Location: Cyclades, Aegean Sea Art: Simplified, geometric nude female figures Decorated pottery, marble bowls, and jars Current Knowledge: Many unanswered questions about the culture ○ Minoan Culture: Peak: Second millennium BCE Location: Island of Crete Center: City of Knossos Art: Depicted sea life and female snake goddess statues Naturalistic pictorial style in frescoes and pottery Architecture: Four major palaces Unfortified, light, flexible, and organic style Legend: Associated with the Minotaur and the labyrinth (royal palace) ○ Mycenaean Culture: Peak: Coincided with the collapse of Minoan civilization Location: Greek mainland, centered around Mycenae Art: Elaborate tombs with preserved objects Mastery in goldsmithing Skill in relief sculpture Historical Context: Believed to have destroyed Minoan civilization Ancient Greek Art ○ Archaic Period (c. 660–475 BCE): Influences: Stone sculptures of Egypt and Mesopotamia Sculpture: Carved in marble and limestone Freestanding figures with frontal pose, more dynamic and realistic than Egyptian art ○ Architecture: Temples with early Doric and Ionic columns ○ Vase Painting: Black silhouetted figures Corinthian style with floral backgrounds Athenian-style vases: linear, larger scale Red-figure vases: red figures on black background ○ Classical Period: Early Classical: Temples with sturdy Doric columns Sculpture characterized by solemnity, strength, and simplicity Focus on moments before or after an important action Advances in sculptural techniques, abandonment of stiff frontal postures Introduction of contrapposto (weight shifted onto one leg for naturalistic appearance) Greek statuary influenced Western art, including Renaissance, Baroque, and Neoclassical periods Middle Classical: Important advances in architecture Parthenon (restored in 447 BCE): admired architectural work, columns influenced Western architecture for over 2,000 years Late Classical: Architecture decline post-Peloponnesian War Continued use of simple Doric columns, increasing popularity of Corinthian columns Hellenistic Period: Influence from Eastern civilizations Blending of Greek styles with Asian Minor Notable works: Venus de Milo, Laocoön Group (masterworks presenting ideals of beauty) Etruscan Art ○ Time Period: First millennium BCE ○ Location: Italy ○ Transition: Between Greek ideals and Roman pragmatism ○ Art and Architecture: Known primarily for tomb decoration Buildings mostly lost (constructed of brick and wood) Ceramic models depict temples with Greek-style tiled, gabled roofs and columns ○ Artifacts: Sarcophagus lids and other baked clay art Bronze objects showcasing Etruscan craftsmanship ○ Paintings: Found on tomb walls and ceilings Bright, flat colors depicting figures playing music and dancing at funeral celebrations Roman Art ○ Influence: Etruscan art and Greek standards Second century BCE: Greek influence prominent in Roman sculptures and artworks ○ Architectural Advancements: Concrete: Enabled strong construction by filling spaces between stone walls with rubble bound by concrete Curved Arch: Pioneered use for bridges and aqueducts Road System: Facilitated communication and control across the Empire Notable Structures: Colosseum (72–80 CE) Pantheon (c. 126–128 CE) ○ Sculptures: Triumphal Arches: Topped with reliefs depicting emperors or military victories Funerary Reliefs: Decorative and narrative; found on tombs and sarcophagi Portraits: Ranged from small busts to large statues; often idealized rather than naturalistic ○ Impact: Influenced Middle Ages art, Renaissance, and subsequent art movements Byzantine and Medieval Art ○ Byzantine Art: Mosaics: Small ceramic tiles, stone, or glass set into a ground material; prominent in Christian content. Notable examples in the churches of Ravenna (present-day Italy). Architecture: Hagia Sophia (532–537 CE): Located in Constantinople, considered a major architectural achievement. ○ Medieval Art: Preservation by the Church: Art was preserved largely by the Church due to civil strife and widespread illiteracy. Manuscripts were hand-copied on vellum or parchment, with notable works like the Book of Kells and the Coronation Gospels. ○ Early Medieval Art (c. 375–1025): Germanic Metalwork: Abstract, decorative, geometric designs on small-scale jewelry and ornaments in bronze, silver, or gold. Viking Art: Wood-carvings on ships; Viking art merged with Anglo-Saxon and Celtic styles, termed Hiberno-Saxon. ○ Romanesque Architecture: Characteristics: Stone-vaulted buildings with barrel vaults, massive walls, and small window openings. Example: Saint-Sernin, Toulouse (c. 1070–1120). ○ Gothic Architecture: Characteristics: Pointed Arches: Create a soaring effect in interiors. Ribbed Vaults: Framework of thin stone ribs for ceiling support. Flying Buttresses: External supports counteracting arch pressure, allowing larger windows. Stained Glass: Used in large windows to create bright, colorful interiors. Notable Example: Chartres Cathedral, France (begun c. 1145; rebuilt after 1194). The Renaissance in Southern Europe ○ Transition from Medieval to Renaissance Art: Giotto di Bondone (1267–1336/37): Introduced early perspective techniques. Used overlapping and modeling to create depth. His figures displayed more emotion and naturalism compared to Gothic art. ○ Economic and Cultural Influences: Development of paper money. Wealth accumulated by families like the Medici, who were major patrons of the arts. Influence of Greek and Roman classical art on Renaissance artists. ○ Changing Role of Artists: Artists were recognized as intellectual figures, not just artisans. Emphasis on individual genius and contributions to society. ○ Key Figures and Innovations: Lorenzo Ghiberti (1381?–1455): Won the 1401 competition for the Florence baptistery doors. Created panels depicting classical Greek figures. His second set of doors was called the “Gates of Paradise” by Michelangelo. ○ Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446): Designed the dome of Florence Cathedral using a double-shelled dome. Developed linear perspective, revolutionizing spatial representation in art. ○ Masaccio (1401–1428): Applied linear and aerial perspective in frescoes. His work demonstrated a significant advancement in realistic spatial representation. ○ Donatello (1389?–1466): Founder of modern sculpture. Known for the bronze statue of David, the first freestanding nude statue since antiquity. Focused on naturalism and dramatic expression. ○ Sandro Botticelli (1444?–1510): Painted “The Birth of Venus,” establishing an enduring image of female beauty. His work was characterized by its graceful style and mythological themes. ○ Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519): Known as a Renaissance Man: painter, sculptor, architect, engineer, and scientist. Innovations in painting, including the use of sfumato. Famous works: “The Last Supper” and “Mona Lisa.” ○ Michelangelo di Buonarotti (1475–1564): Created the statue of David from a flawed marble block. Painted the Sistine Chapel ceiling, a masterpiece of fresco art. His works reflected intense emotional and physical realism. ○ Raphael Sanzio (1483–1520): Known for the frescoes in the Pope’s chambers, including “The School of Athens.” Renowned for his depictions of the Madonna, with works like “Sistine Madonna.” ○ Giorgione (1477/78–1510): Innovated in landscape painting. Known for “The Tempest,” where the landscape is the primary focus. ○ Titian Vecelli (c. 1488–1576): Prolific Venetian painter and master colorist. Known for innovative portraiture and use of background elements. ○ Tintoretto (1518–1594): Associated with Mannerism, characterized by dramatic angles and chiaroscuro. His works anticipated the Baroque period with their emotional and spiritual depth. ○ El Greco (Dominikos Theotokopoulos) (1541–1614): Mannerist painter known for elongated figures and dramatic compositions. Influenced by Tintoretto and Titian, he captured the fervor of the Counter-Reformation. The Renaissance in Northern Europe Distinctive Features and Influences ○ Scale and Detail: Northern European artworks were typically smaller in scale compared to their southern counterparts. Northern artists exhibited a high degree of realistic detail, largely due to the use of new oil paints, which allowed for richer textures and more nuanced depictions. ○ Cultural and Stylistic Differences: Unlike Italy, northern Europe retained more Gothic stylistic elements well into the Renaissance. The influence of classical antiquity was less pronounced in the north, owing to the lack of direct connection with ancient Roman culture and proximity to Roman art. ○ Increasing Italian Influence: By the sixteenth century, northern European art showed increased awareness of Italian Renaissance techniques. Many northern artists traveled to Italy to study Renaissance art, and Italian artists brought Renaissance ideas to the north. Engravings of Italian works spread Renaissance styles throughout Europe. Trade connections, particularly between German merchants and Venice, facilitated the exchange of artistic ideas. ○ Regional Developments and Artists: Matthias Grünewald (1475?–1528): Known for his intense and emotionally charged religious scenes. Greatest work: The Isenheim Altarpiece (c. 1510–15), a multi-panel altarpiece renowned for its vivid and dramatic depiction of Christ’s crucifixion. Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528): Renowned for integrating northern naturalistic detail with Italian Renaissance theories. Studied Italian art and incorporated its principles into his work. Known for woodcuts and engravings, including The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (c. 1498). Wrote about art theories, contributing significantly to the development of Renaissance art in the north. Hans Holbein the Younger (1497–1543): Celebrated for his detailed and psychologically penetrating portraits. Worked primarily in England and served as court painter to King Henry VIII. His portrait of Henry VIII exemplifies his skill in capturing both physical likeness and psychological depth. His style set a high standard for English portrait painting up through the nineteenth century. Baroque Art ○ Overview and Characteristics Time Period: The Baroque period spans from the late 16th century to the mid-18th century. Style: Baroque art is known for its dynamic movement, emotional intensity, and use of dramatic lighting. In contrast to the calm and balanced compositions of the Renaissance, Baroque works are more energetic and ornate, emphasizing rich color, elaborate detail, and theatricality. ○ Historical Context Political and Religious Climate: The Baroque era was marked by conflicts between empires rather than city-states, as seen during the Renaissance. The Catholic Church, in response to the Protestant Reformation, sought to reaffirm its influence through emotionally charged and dramatic art, a movement known as the Counter-Reformation. This period was also characterized by the absolute rule of monarchs who viewed their power as divinely ordained, contributing to the creation of grand and opulent artworks. Patronage: The wealth and power concentrated in the hands of monarchs and the church led to significant patronage of the arts, resulting in the production of grandiose and impactful artworks. ○ Notable Baroque Artists Caravaggio (1571–1610): Renowned for his dramatic use of chiaroscuro (the contrast between light and dark). His works often depicted religious scenes with intense realism and used lower-class individuals as models, breaking from the idealized representations of the past. His style was so influential that artworks with similar light-dark contrasts are termed "caravaggesque." Artemisia Gentileschi (1593?–1652?): One of the few female artists of the Baroque period to gain recognition. She adapted Caravaggio's techniques and is known for her powerful depictions of Old Testament women and self-portraits. Gianlorenzo Bernini (1598–1680): A master of Baroque sculpture and a talented architect, painter, and draftsman. His most famous work, The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa (1647–52), exemplifies Baroque art's theatricality, with dramatic lighting and an innovative treatment of marble to simulate fabric and clouds. Bernini's work is a prime example of the Baroque's emphasis on emotional intensity and movement. Peter Paul Rubens (1577–1640): A leading Baroque artist in Flanders, known for his vibrant color and energetic compositions. He ran a large workshop and influenced many artists across Europe with his dynamic style. Rembrandt van Rijn (1606–69): A Dutch master recognized for his innovative use of light and shadow, as well as his profound psychological insight in portraiture. His most famous work, The Night Watch (1642), broke with traditional group portrait conventions, giving prominence to certain figures and using dramatic lighting and composition. Diego Velázquez (1599–1660): Court painter to King Philip IV of Spain, Velázquez is known for his masterful use of color and light. His technique of building forms with patches of color rather than relying on preliminary drawings influenced later art movements, including Impressionism. ○ Influence of the Baroque Style France and Louis XIV: The Baroque period reached its zenith in France under the reign of Louis XIV, the "Sun King." Louis XIV's palace at Versailles became the epitome of Baroque opulence, with its extensive gardens, fountains, and grand architecture. The establishment of the Salon and the Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture under Louis XIV set artistic standards that continued to influence art into the 19th century. Spain: The Spanish court of King Philip IV, influenced by the French court, also embraced the Baroque style. Velázquez's innovative approach to painting, focusing on color and light over detailed drawing, marked a significant development in art and inspired future artists. Rococo, Neoclassicism, and Romanticism ○ Rococo (Early 18th Century) Overview and Characteristics: Rococo emerged as an extension of Baroque but differed significantly in its lighter, more playful aesthetic. The style is characterized by light-hearted decoration, often with the use of gold, pastels, and intricate details. Rococo art was associated with gaiety, romance, and the frivolous lifestyle of the aristocracy, particularly at the court of Versailles. Notable Rococo Artists: Jean-Antoine Watteau (1684–1721): ○ Innovator of the fête galante genre, depicting nobility enjoying leisurely outdoor activities. François Boucher (1703–70): ○ Known for transforming classical myths into scenes of courtly gallantry with a focus on nubile nudes. He was a favorite of Madame Pompadour, the mistress of Louis XV. Jean-Honoré Fragonard (1732–1806): ○ A student of Boucher, his works reflect Boucher’s influence, emphasizing the same themes of elegance and romance. ○ Neoclassicism (Mid-18th Century to Early 19th Century) Overview and Characteristics: Neoclassicism emerged as a reaction against the frivolity of Rococo, influenced by the democratic ideals of the Enlightenment and a renewed interest in classical antiquity. The style is characterized by sharp outlines, unemotional figures, geometric composition, and a focus on rational order. Neoclassical art aimed to revive classical themes from ancient Greece and Rome, often conveying moral and civic virtues. Notable Neoclassical Artists: Jacques Louis David (1748–1825): ○ A leading figure of Neoclassicism, David’s works like the Oath of the Horatii (1784) epitomized republican virtues and the Neoclassical ideal. ○ He later became a painter for Napoleon Bonaparte, creating large propagandistic works that reflected the complexities of an artist’s relationship with political power. Jean Dominique Ingres (1780–1867): ○ A pupil of David, Ingres’ works display the clear lines and rational order typical of Neoclassicism, with a focus on unemotional, idealized figures. ○ Romanticism (Late 18th Century to Mid-19th Century) Overview and Characteristics: Romanticism arose as a counter-movement to Neoclassicism, emphasizing emotion, imagination, and individual experience over reason and order. The style is characterized by emotional intensity, dreamlike qualities, and the incorporation of exotic, dramatic, and often melodramatic elements. Romantic artists were drawn to awe-inspiring natural landscapes, historical themes, and the exploration of human emotion and inner turmoil. Notable Romantic Artists: Eugène Delacroix (1798–1863): ○ A leading figure of Romanticism, Delacroix’s works are known for their exotic themes, vivid color, and dynamic compositions. ○ His subjects often included foreign settings, historical events, and dramatic scenes involving animals. Théodore Gericault (1791–1824): ○ Known for his powerful, often tragic works like The Raft of the Medusa, which depict human struggle and suffering. William Blake (1757–1827): ○ An English Romantic artist and poet, Blake’s works are characterized by their mystical themes and expressive, visionary style. Realism and Impressionism ○ Realism (Mid-19th Century) Overview and Characteristics: Realism emerged as a reaction against the idealized and often dramatic subjects of Neoclassicism and Romanticism. The movement focused on depicting ordinary people and everyday life with unflinching accuracy, including the negative aspects of reality. Realist artists aimed to portray social realities and working-class life, challenging the traditional themes of history and religion. Notable Realist Artists: Gustave Courbet (1819–77): ○ A central figure in Realism, Courbet's work, such as The Stonebreakers (1849–50), depicted laborers in a direct and unembellished manner. ○ His art often had political undertones, reflecting the social and economic struggles of the time. Honoré Daumier (1808–79): ○ Known for his satirical lithographs and paintings that highlighted social issues and criticized political and social injustices. Jean-François Millet (1814–75): ○ Renowned for his depictions of rural life and peasant labor, Millet's works like The Gleaners (1857) portrayed the dignity and hardship of agrarian life. ○ Impressionism (Late 19th Century) Overview and Characteristics: Impressionism arose as a reaction against the strict rules and formalism of the academic art institutions, particularly the Salons in Paris. The movement is characterized by a focus on capturing the effects of light and color through rapid brushstrokes and an emphasis on immediacy and spontaneity. Impressionists often painted en plein air (outdoors) to capture the changing light and atmosphere, leading to vivid, fragmented brushwork and a new approach to color theory. Notable Impressionist Artists: Édouard Manet (1832–83): ○ Although Manet did not formally align himself with the Impressionists, his work greatly influenced the movement. ○ His painting Le Déjeuner sur l'Herbe (1863) challenged traditional norms by depicting a contemporary scene with a nude woman and clothed men, which caused scandal and ridicule. Claude Monet (1840–1926): ○ The artist after whom the movement is named, Monet’s Impression, Sunrise (1872) gave Impressionism its name and exemplified the technique of capturing light and color. ○ Monet’s work emphasized the transient effects of light and color, using loose brushstrokes to depict natural scenes. Camille Pissarro (1830–1903): ○ An important figure in the Impressionist group, Pissarro's work focused on rural and urban scenes, employing a style that captured the essence of modern life. Alfred Sisley (1839–99): ○ Known for his landscapes, Sisley's works are celebrated for their depiction of natural light and atmospheric effects. Post-Impressionism and Other Late Nineteenth-Century Developments ○ Post-Impressionism (Late 19th Century) Overview: Post-Impressionism emerged as a movement that expanded upon and diverged from the principles of Impressionism. Artists sought to explore deeper symbolic content, formal structure, and emotional resonance beyond the immediate impressions of light and color. Key Figures and Their Contributions: Paul Cézanne (1839–1906): ○ Contribution: Cézanne redefined painting by focusing on form and structure. He proposed that objects in a painting could be reduced to basic geometric shapes and organized into a coherent structure with a clear foreground, middle ground, and background. ○ Impact: His approach laid the groundwork for Cubism and influenced modern art with his ideas about form and spatial relationships. ○ Notable Work: Cézanne’s landscapes and still lifes, such as Mont Sainte-Victoire and The Basket of Apples. Georges Seurat (1859–91): ○ Contribution: Seurat developed Pointillism, a technique that involved applying small dots of complementary colors to create a vibrant effect through optical mixing. His work emphasized scientific and technical aspects of color theory. ○ Impact: His precise and methodical approach to color and composition contrasted with the spontaneity of Impressionism, resulting in static but visually striking images. ○ Notable Work: A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte. Vincent van Gogh (1853–90): ○ Contribution: Van Gogh’s use of bold, expressive colors and dynamic brushwork aimed to convey emotional depth and personal vision. His colors were often exaggerated to express inner feelings rather than to represent the natural world. ○ Impact: Van Gogh’s work, characterized by its intense color and emotional power, significantly influenced the development of modern art. ○ Notable Work: The Starry Night and Night Café. Paul Gauguin (1848–1903): ○ Contribution: Gauguin sought to create art that was more emotional and less conventional. He traveled to Tahiti to capture the vibrant colors and exotic themes of the island life, infusing his works with a sense of otherness and primal intensity. ○ Impact: Gauguin’s work explored themes of primitivism and symbolism, impacting the development of Symbolism and modern art. ○ Notable Work: Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going? ○ Other Late Nineteenth-Century Developments Influences and Innovations: Photography: ○ The invention of the camera posed challenges to traditional art forms, as it raised questions about the necessity of capturing realistic representation. ○ Artists began to experiment with styles and techniques that moved beyond mere imitation of reality. Chemically Based Paints and Paint Tubes: ○ These innovations made it easier for artists to paint outdoors and capture the effects of natural light more effectively. Global Exploration and Colonialism: ○ Exposure to non-Western art forms, such as African masks and Japanese prints, influenced many artists, including Edgar Degas, who incorporated elements of these styles into his work. Pre-Raphaelites: Overview: ○ A group of English artists who sought to return to the detailed, vibrant style of pre-Renaissance art. They were dissatisfied with the Industrial Revolution's impact on society and art. Characteristics: ○ Emphasis on nature, intricate detail, and a moralistic or quasi-religious approach. ○ Their work paved the way for the Art Nouveau movement. Notable Artists: Dante Gabriel Rossetti, William Holman Hunt, and John Everett Millais. Art Nouveau: Overview: ○ A decorative style that became popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, characterized by flowing, sinuous lines and the depiction of natural forms such as leaves and flowers. Characteristics: ○ Emphasis on decorative arts and design, with a focus on harmonious and stylized natural forms. The Emergence of Modernism ○ Fauvism (Early 20th Century) Overview: Fauvism emerged as a revolutionary movement characterized by bold, non-naturalistic colors and dynamic compositions. The movement was named "Fauves," or "wild beasts," by critics due to its radical departure from traditional color use. Key Figures: Henri Matisse (1869–1954): ○ Contribution: Matisse's use of vivid, arbitrary colors and simplified forms challenged conventional aesthetics. His work emphasized emotional expression through color rather than accurate representation. ○ Notable Work: The Joy of Life. ○ Cubism (Early 20th Century) Overview: Cubism, developed by Picasso and Braque, redefined artistic representation by breaking down subjects into geometric shapes and presenting multiple perspectives simultaneously. It aimed to depict the complexity of human perception. Key Figures: Pablo Picasso (1881–1973) and Georges Braque (1882–1963): ○ Contribution: They analyzed and deconstructed forms, creating fragmented and abstracted compositions. Their work was influenced by psychological theories of perception and African art. ○ Notable Works: Les Demoiselles d’Avignon by Picasso and Violin and Candlestick by Braque. ○ Expressionism (Early 20th Century) Overview: Expressionism focused on conveying emotional experiences rather than realistic depictions. It combined intense color with personal, subjective interpretations of the world. Key Figures: Die Brücke Group: ○ Key Artists: Ernst Ludwig Kirchner (1880–1938) and Emil Nolde (1867–1956). ○ Contribution: They used vivid colors and distorted forms to express emotional and psychological states. Der Blaue Reiter Group: ○ Key Artist: Wassily Kandinsky (1866–1944). ○ Contribution: Kandinsky pioneered abstract art, focusing on color and form to evoke emotions without representational content. ○ Notable Work: Composition VIII. ○ Abstraction and De Stijl (Early 20th Century) Overview: Abstract art and movements like De Stijl sought to explore pure form and color, devoid of representational content. Key Figures: Kazimir Malevich (1878–1935): ○ Contribution: Developed Suprematism, focusing on basic geometric forms and pure color. ○ Notable Work: Black Square. Piet Mondrian (1872–1944): ○ Contribution: Co-founded De Stijl, which emphasized abstract forms and primary colors arranged in a grid. ○ Notable Work: Composition with Red, Blue, and Yellow. ○ Modern Art in the United States (Early 20th Century) Armory Show (1913): Overview: The Armory Show introduced American audiences to modern European art, significantly influencing the American art scene. It featured works by Duchamp, Picasso, and other European artists. Impact: It exposed American artists to new styles and ideas, catalyzing the development of modern art in the U.S. Harlem Renaissance (1920s): Overview: A cultural and artistic explosion in Harlem, celebrating African-American heritage and creativity. It included notable artists and writers, and influenced subsequent generations. Key Artists: Jacob Lawrence, Romare Bearden. ○ Dada and Surrealism (Early 20th Century) Dada: Overview: Originating in Zurich, Dada was a reaction to the horrors of World War I. It embraced absurdity, randomness, and anti-establishment sentiments. Key Figures: Marcel Duchamp (1887–1968), who created "ready-mades" like Fountain and LHOOQ. Surrealism: Overview: Surrealism aimed to explore the unconscious mind and dreams, often using unexpected juxtapositions and fantastical imagery. Key Figures: Salvador Dalí (1904–1989), René Magritte (1898–1967), and Joan Miró (1893–1983). ○ Bauhaus (1919–1933) Overview: The Bauhaus school in Germany sought to unify art, craft, and technology, emphasizing functional design and simplicity. It aimed to reconcile industrial production with aesthetic principles. Key Figures: Josef Albers (1888–1976): ○ Contribution: His work in color theory and design had a lasting impact on modern art and design. Impact: The Bauhaus's principles influenced contemporary architecture and design, evident in streamlined and functional aesthetics. Abstraction and Post-War Art Movements ○ Abstract Expressionism (1940s-1950s) Overview: Abstract Expressionism emerged as a dominant art movement in New York after World War II. It focused on spontaneous, emotional expression, often through abstract forms and dramatic color use. Key Figures: Jackson Pollock (1912–1956): ○ Contribution: Known for his "drip" paintings, Pollock abandoned the brush to let paint fall freely on the canvas, creating dynamic and textured works. ○ Notable Work: No. 5, 1948. ○ Willem de Kooning (1904–1997): Contribution: Used aggressive brushstrokes and abstracted figures in his works, contributing to the Action Painting aspect of Abstract Expressionism. Notable Work: Woman I. Lee Krasner (1908–1984): ○ Contribution: Krasner's abstract works employed vibrant colors and dynamic forms, often reflecting her personal experiences and emotions. ○ Notable Work: Gaea. Franz Kline (1910–1962): ○ Contribution: Known for his large, bold, black-and-white paintings that emphasized dynamic brushwork and strong contrasts. ○ Notable Work: Mahoning. Styles: Action Painting: ○ Characteristics: Emphasizes energetic and expressive brushstrokes, often created through techniques like dripping or splattering paint. ○ Notable Artists: Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning. Color Field Painting: ○ Characteristics: Focuses on broad areas of color with simple, often geometric forms. It aims to evoke emotions through color and composition. ○ Notable Artists: Mark Rothko, Josef Albers. ○ Notable Work: Orange, Red, Yellow by Rothko. ○ Post-Abstract Expressionism Developments Emergence of Neo-Dada: Overview: ○ Reacting against the abstraction of Abstract Expressionism, artists began to explore the use of everyday objects and symbols in their work, leading to the Neo-Dada movement, which paved the way for Pop Art. Key Figures: Jasper Johns (b. 1930): ○ Contribution: Created works featuring familiar symbols and objects such as flags, maps, and numbers, challenging traditional notions of art. ○ Notable Work: Flag (1954-55). Robert Rauschenberg (1925–2008): ○ Contribution: Known for "combines," which are works that incorporate non-traditional materials and objects, blending painting and sculpture. ○ Notable Works: Bed (1955), Monogram (1959). ○ Pop Art (1960s) Overview: Pop Art emerged as a movement that embraced popular culture and consumerism, often using imagery from advertising, comic strips, and everyday objects. It contrasted with the introspective nature of Abstract Expressionism. Key Figures: Andy Warhol (1928–1987): ○ Contribution: Used mass-production techniques and imagery from popular culture, such as Campbell’s Soup cans and Marilyn Monroe portraits, to comment on consumerism and celebrity. ○ Notable Work: Campbell's Soup Cans. Roy Lichtenstein (1923–1997): ○ Contribution: Employed techniques from comic strips and commercial printing to create large-scale paintings with bold colors and Ben-Day dots. ○ Notable Work: Whaam! Pop Art, Minimalism, and Photorealism ○ Pop Art (1960s) Overview: Pop Art emerged in the 1960s as a movement that challenged traditional artistic conventions by incorporating imagery from mass culture, consumerism, and popular media. Key Figures: Andy Warhol (1928–1987): ○ Contribution: Revolutionized art with his use of silkscreen printing, producing iconic works featuring Campbell’s Soup cans, Brillo boxes, and celebrities. Warhol’s factory-like approach to art production mocked the art world and commercial culture. ○ Notable Work: Campbell's Soup Cans. Roy Lichtenstein (1923–1997): ○ Contribution: Employed techniques from comic strips, such as Ben-Day dots, to create large-scale paintings that elevated low-brow imagery to high art. His work often included dramatic compositions and vibrant colors. ○ Notable Work: Whaam! Robert Indiana (1928–2018): ○ Contribution: Utilized stencils from commercial sign-making to create art that featured bold, graphic messages and symbols. His work often incorporated textual elements and popular icons. ○ Notable Work: LOVE (1966). ○ Minimalism (1960s-1970s) Overview: Minimalism focused on reducing art to its fundamental elements, emphasizing simplicity, geometric shapes, and monochromatic color schemes. The movement sought to strip away personal expression and complex compositions. Key Figures: Frank Stella (b. 1936): ○ Contribution: Known for his “hard-edge” paintings, Stella's work featured precise, geometric forms with minimal color variation. His art often involved repetitive patterns and a focus on the physicality of the painting surface. ○ Notable Work: Hyena Stomp. David Smith (1906–1965): ○ Contribution: A sculptor who worked primarily with stainless steel, creating large, abstract sculptures with a focus on clean lines and geometric forms. ○ Notable Work: Cubi XII. Dan Flavin (1933–1996): ○ Contribution: Known for his use of fluorescent light tubes, Flavin created installations that played with space, light, and color, using industrial materials to explore minimalism in three dimensions. ○ Notable Work: Monument for V. Tatlin. ○ Photorealism (1970s) Overview: Photorealism emerged as a response to Abstract Expressionism and Pop Art, aiming to achieve a high degree of realism and detail akin to photography. This movement focused on creating artworks that were as sharp and detailed as photographs. Key Figures: Chuck Close (1940–2021): ○ Contribution: Renowned for his large-scale, highly detailed portraits that capture every nuance of his subjects, often through the use of grids and meticulous techniques. ○ Notable Work: Big Self-Portrait. Duane Hanson (1925–1996): ○ Contribution: Created lifelike sculptures of ordinary people, using hyper-realistic details to reflect and comment on contemporary American life. ○ Notable Work: Tourists (1970). Earthworks, Installations, and Performance Art ○ Earthworks Overview: Earthworks, also known as Land Art, is a form of art that emerged in the 1970s, where artists create large-scale works directly within the natural landscape. These artworks often involve the manipulation of earth, rocks, and other natural materials to interact with and alter the environment. Key Figures: Christo (1935–2020) and Jeanne-Claude (1935–2009): ○ Contribution: This artistic duo became famous for their monumental environmental art projects, which involved wrapping landmarks, creating massive fabric installations, and altering landscapes on a grand scale. Their work often required years of preparation and extensive logistical planning, emphasizing the process as much as the finished product. ○ Notable Works: Running Fence (1976): A 24-mile-long cloth fence in California. Surrounded Islands (1983): 11 islands in Biscayne Bay, Florida, surrounded by pink fabric. The Gates (2005): 7,503 gates with free-flowing fabric installed in Central Park, New York City. ○ Michael Heizer (b. 1944): Contribution: Known for creating large-scale earthworks that explore the interaction between the natural environment and human intervention. Notable Work: Double Negative (1969–70): A massive trench cut into the Nevada desert. ○ Robert Smithson (1938–1973): Contribution: A pioneer of the Earthworks movement, Smithson's works often explore themes of entropy and decay within natural landscapes. Notable Work: Spiral Jetty (1970): A 1,500-foot-long spiral constructed from rock and earth extending into the Great Salt Lake, Utah. ○ Installations Overview: Installation art involves the creation of immersive environments that transform the perception of space. These works are often site-specific and designed to be experienced by viewers in a particular location. Key Figures: Yayoi Kusama (b. 1929): ○ Contribution: Kusama is known for her immersive, often psychedelic installations that incorporate themes of infinity and self-obliteration. Her work frequently includes mirrors, polka dots, and bright colors. ○ Notable Work: Infinity Mirror Rooms. Olafur Eliasson (b. 1967): ○ Contribution: Eliasson creates installations that explore the relationship between natural phenomena, human perception, and the built environment. ○ Notable Work: The Weather Project (2003): A large-scale installation at Tate Modern, London, simulating the sun and sky indoors. ○ Performance Art Overview: Performance art is a dynamic art form where the artist's actions and presence become the artwork. It often blurs the boundaries between art and life, and it is usually intended to be ephemeral, with the performance existing only in the moment it occurs. Key Figures: Marina Abramović (born 1946): ○ Contribution: Abramović is one of the most prominent figures in performance art, known for pushing the limits of physical and mental endurance in her work. Her performances often involve direct interaction with the audience. ○ Notable Work: The Artist is Present (2010): A 736-hour performance at MoMA, New York, where Abramović sat in silence across from visitors, inviting them to engage in a silent, non-verbal dialogue. Guerrilla Girls (est. 1985): ○ Contribution: This anonymous, all-female collective uses performance art, posters, and public speeches to challenge sexism and racism in the art world. They are known for wearing gorilla masks to conceal their identities, emphasizing the collective rather than individual fame. ○ Notable Work: Activist posters and public performances that highlight the underrepresentation of women and artists of color in art institutions. Postmodernism and Beyond Overview: ○ Postmodernism emerged as a reaction against the principles of modernism, often embracing a more eclectic and ironic approach to art. Postmodern works frequently revisit and reinterpret earlier styles, challenging traditional notions of originality, authenticity, and the role of art in society. Key Figures: ○ Philip Johnson (1906–2005): Contribution: A leading architect of the International Style, Johnson later became a proponent of Postmodernism in architecture. He famously suggested that art should also serve as decoration, challenging the modernist maxim that "form follows function." Notable Work: AT&T Building (1984, now 550 Madison Avenue): A skyscraper in New York City known for its Chippendale-style top, which added a decorative element to the modernist form. Brief Overview of Non-Western Art ○ Traditional Focus of Art History Western-Centric Narrative: The study of art history has traditionally focused on Western European ideas, tracing their origins from Greek philosophy through the Renaissance, and further developments in the 17th and 18th centuries. 20th and 21st centuries saw expansions due to technological advancements and the atomic age. Limitations and Expansions: This Eurocentric narrative, while valuable, has clear limitations and has been challenged in recent decades. Feminist critics and other scholars have pushed for the inclusion of marginalized artists and cultures in art history. Inclusion of Non-Western Art Emerging Focus: Recent academic efforts have increasingly included the art histories of Asia, Africa, Oceania, the Americas, and the art of Islam, acknowledging their central role in the broader discipline of art history. Scope and Limitations: This brief overview touches on only a fraction of the rich artistic traditions outside the Western world, focusing primarily on traditional forms rather than contemporary art from these regions. Conclusion: The inclusion of non-Western art enriches the understanding of global art history and challenges the traditional boundaries of the field, highlighting the diverse and interconnected nature of artistic expression worldwide. Overview of Asian Art ○ Chinese Art Historical Significance: China has a rich artistic history spanning thousands of years, with archaeological finds that rival those in Mesopotamia and Egypt. Great Wall: One of the most famous works, originally built for defense, now celebrated for its engineering and aesthetic qualities. Dynasties and Art: Dynasties like the Qin left behind elaborate tombs and artifacts, such as the Terracotta Army, life-size clay soldiers created for the First Emperor of Qin around 210 BCE. Successive dynasties contributed to Chinese art with grand cities, palaces, bronze statues, and intricate ceremonial vessels. Influence of Buddhism: Introduced from India, Buddhism significantly impacted Chinese arts, especially during the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE), considered China’s Golden Age. The Tang Dynasty is known for producing some of the greatest ceramic sculptures, alongside traditional Chinese ink drawings and contemplative scrolls. Modern Developments: After the communist revolution in 1949, Chinese art became heavily politicized, serving as propaganda. Since the late 1970s, Chinese art has gradually moved away from political themes. ○ Indian Art Diversity and Rich Traditions: India is home to over 1,600 languages and a variety of religious and cultural traditions, with some of the oldest artistic traditions in the world. Buddhist and Greek Influence: Buddhism played a strong role in shaping Indian art, with classical Buddha images influenced by Greek art. India’s early civilizations left behind ruins and sculptures known for their sensuous style, particularly influenced by Hinduism. Hindu Artistic Expression: Hinduism, with its pantheon of gods and goddesses, inspired lively, sinuous styles in Indian art. The image of Shiva dancing with multiple arms is a striking example of this style. ○ Japanese Art Cultural Isolation and Tradition: Japan’s long history of isolation allowed it to develop a consistent and traditional artistic style, heavily influenced by succeeding dynasties. Buddhism's Role: Like in China, Buddhism became a central focus in Japan’s traditional arts. Western Influence and Rejection: During the Impressionist movement in Europe, Japan sent artists to study in France, leading to a brief period of Western-influenced art. However, Japanese artists soon returned to traditional techniques, such as isometric perspective and flat color areas. Printmaking: Japan is particularly renowned in the West for its printmaking. Japanese prints had a profound influence on Western art, especially among French artists in the late 19th century who adopted the flat colors and overhead viewpoints seen in these works. Overview of African and Oceanic Art ○ African Art Historical Traditions: Northern Africa: Often linked to Mediterranean and Western art traditions. Sub-Saharan Africa: Distinct histories with notable early examples like the Nok civilization (c. 900 BCE – 200 CE) in Nigeria, known for life-like terracotta sculptures. Benin Kingdom: Emerged around 900 CE in Nigeria. Known for bronze portrait heads and other court-associated art. Many artifacts were confiscated during the British raid in 1897, now housed mainly in Western museums. Challenges in Preservation: Artifacts made of perishable materials like wood and fiber have not survived well. European colonial destruction and the removal of artifacts without proper context have further limited our understanding of African art. Masks and Cultural Context: Cultures such as the Dan and Bwa are famous for their masks. These masks are part of performances that include costumes, music, dance, and communal celebrations, which are often lost when displayed in museums. ○ Oceanic Art Geographic Scope: Oceania includes regions like Polynesia, Melanesia, and Micronesia. Many traditional artifacts were lost due to the use of fragile materials in harsh climates. Body Arts and Tattooing: In Polynesia, tattooing was crucial for expressing social status. These art forms were lost with the death of individuals and are now only documented through historical engravings. Melanesian Traditions: The Asmat people of Melanesia are known for their carved wooden shields and ceremonial masks. These were traditionally used in warfare and ancestor worship, but now serve as cultural symbols. Cultural Renewal: Indigenous groups, such as the Maori of New Zealand, are actively reviving traditional arts. These efforts aim to express and reinforce cultural identity in the face of historical colonization. Overview of Islamic Art ○ Origins of Islam: Emerged in the Arabian Peninsula following the teachings of the prophet Muhammad (c. 570–632). The Koran (Islam's holy book) plays a central role in the religion, with beautifully produced copies being highly valued art objects. ○ Characteristics of Islamic Art: Non-figurative: Following the Koran's scriptures, Islamic art avoids depicting human figures. Abstract and Calligraphic Decoration: Commonly found on Islamic art objects, including architecture. ○ Sacred Architecture: Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem (687–692): One of the oldest examples of Islamic architecture, marking Islam's presence in a city sacred to Jews and Christians. Mosques: Serve as sites for communal prayer, with the qibla wall facing Mecca. Mosque architecture varies widely across different regions. The Americas ○ Historical Classification: Early art from North and South America was often dismissed as simple craftsmanship and not considered true art. Renewed interest has led to greater appreciation, with more artifacts now featured in art museums. ○ Major Civilizations: Olmec, Toltec, Maya, Inca, and Aztec: Flourished with significant contributions to art and architecture. Pyramids: Rivaling those of Egypt, like the Pyramid of the Sun in Mexico, were central to large cities. Mayan Ruins: Renowned for decorative carvings, along with statues, fine textiles, and jewelry. ○ Art and Architecture: Evidence of early peoples in Canada and the United States dates back nearly 12,000 years. Most artifacts from these regions are from the last 2,000 years due to preservation conditions. Native Americans of the Southwest: Known for their architectural skills in building pueblo complexes with over a hundred rooms and multiple stories. Art Techniques 35-end of Section 1 Section 2 Land's importance to artistic production ○ Source of materials for artistic works Basis of modern painting: materials mixed and applied to a canvas on wooden bars Common materials in sculpture: clay, stone, and wood Depictions of land in painting ○ Became particularly significant during the modern era ○ Seventeenth-century Dutch artists: Depicted the Dutch Republic's lands as the main subject of paintings Marked a shift from using land as just the background Landscape painting's rise in popularity ○ Became widespread during the Romantic period ○ Notable regions: Germany England United States ○ Key artists and contributions: Caspar David Friedrich: Experimented with new techniques for depicting land John Constable: Contributed to showcasing the uniqueness of landscapes Thomas Cole: Highlighted national characteristics of home territories through his work Landscape paintings in the United States ○ Tied to Manifest Destiny: A 19th-century cultural belief that American settlers were divinely destined to claim the entire North American continent from east to west. ○ Implications of Manifest Destiny: Implied that the western U.S. lands were devoid of culture and history. Devalued and ignored the existence of native peoples and their cultures. ○ Consequences: Led to severe displacement of Indigenous populations. Resulted in mass killings of Indigenous inhabitants of the West. Euro-American landscape tradition in painting: ○ Highlighted elements of the landscape that were beautiful or picturesque. ○ "Picturesque": Defined as a view worthy of being seen and appreciated as a picture. Contemporary artists' approach: ○ Emphasizes that unseen or unappreciated aspects of the land are equally or more important than the picturesque elements. Use of terms for Indigenous peoples in North America: ○ Different terms are used in various contexts: “Indigenous”: Commonly used today. Describes people whose culture originates from a particular place. Not specific to North America. “Native American”: Describes cultures originating in North America. Gained popularity through political movements in the 1960s and 1970s. Politically charged due to the term “America” deriving from European colonial settlement and map-making. “First Nations”: Commonly used in Canada. Recognizes the sovereignty of Indigenous peoples. Refers to Indigenous peoples of Canada, excluding Métis and Inuit. “Aboriginal”: Refers to the first inhabitants of a territory. More commonly used in Canada than in the United States. “Indian”: Originated from Christopher Columbus’s mistaken belief that he had reached South Asia. Politically vexed due to its historical context and usage. Holds legal standing in the United States, such as in the federal recognition of Indian Tribes. Selected Work: Allora & Calzadilla, Land Mark (Foot Prints), 2022 ○ Allora & Calzadilla (name for artistic partnership) Jennifer Allora Born in Philidelphia (1974) Educated at: ○ University of Richmond, Massachusetts Institute of Technology ○ Independent Study Program at New York’s Whitney American Art Museum. Guillermo Calzadilla Born in Havana, Cuba (1971) Educated at: Escuela de Artes Plásticas y Diseño de Puerto Rico Skowhegan School of Painting and Sculpture Bard College. They met while studying abroad in Florence (1995) Today, They live in San Juan, Puerto Rico Artwork series: Land Mark (Foot Prints): Created by Allora & Calzadilla. Part of an extended series focused on land use on Vieques, Puerto Rico. Series: A group of artworks made around a particular theme or subject. Historical context: Second World War: The United States military took possession of Vieques. Used as a location to store and test weapons. The military occupation disrupted and environmentally harmed the residents. Civil disobedience campaign: Began in the 1970s. Led by members of the Vieques Fisherman’s Association. Key event in 1999: On April 19, a fighter pilot and ground control officer mistakenly selected the wrong target. Two five-hundred-pound bombs were dropped, killing David Sanes Rodríguez (a security guard) instantly. Four others were injured in the incident. Allora & Calzadilla's involvement: Started creating artworks in 1999 to raise awareness about the military occupation. Participated as activists to help end the military occupation of Vieques. Allora & Calzadilla participated in civil disobedience on Vieques, Puerto Rico, by trespassing onto a bombing range. Their presence triggered a heat sensor, halting active explosions during their protest. The artists created custom-made shoes for themselves and other protestors. The soles of the shoes featured laser-cut messages and images on Plexiglas. Messages included: ○ "No more chemical and biological weapons on our land." ○ "Grande es el imperio que desafiamos, pero mas grande es el derecho a la Libertad [Great is the empire we challenge, but greater is our right to liberty]." Artistic Imagery in Land Mark (Foot Prints): The artwork incorporated a map of Vieques marked with two significant “X’s”: ○ One placed over an ammunition storage area on the western side of the island. ○ Another marking the bombing range on the eastern side. Depictions in the artwork: ○ Weapons used in military exercises. ○ Symbols of peace. ○ A notable image of Buzz Aldrin on the moon, part of the Apollo 11 mission. Symbolism and Interpretation: Unlike Alma Thomas, who celebrated the U.S. space program, Allora & Calzadilla used the Apollo 11 reference to highlight the colonial reach of the United States. The image emphasized the idea that the U.S. government’s influence extended beyond Earth, shown through the planting of the U.S. flag on the moon by astronauts Buzz Aldrin and Neil Armstrong. Title Significance: The title "Land Mark (Footprints)" is a deliberate play on words: ○ “Landmark” (without a space) traditionally refers to a prominent, enduring object within a landscape that helps travelers determine their location (e.g., Eiffel Tower, Statue of Liberty). Artistic Contrast: ○ Unlike permanent, human-made landmarks, Allora & Calzadilla’s Land Mark (Footprints) aimed to represent something temporary and non-destructive. ○ The marks made in their artwork were short-lasting, situated low to the ground, and symbolized efforts to remove rather than establish a permanent presence. U.S. Military Withdrawal: The U.S. military began closing the site on Vieques in 2001 and fully departed in 2003 following continued protests. The military's departure did not immediately mitigate the long-term damage inflicted on the island. Continued Artistic Engagement: Allora & Calzadilla maintained their focus on Vieques beyond Land Mark (Footprints). Their 2005 work, Under Discussion, is a six-minute video showcasing a fisherman navigating an upside-down table powered by a motor. Symbolism in Under Discussion: The upturned table was used metaphorically: ○ Represents an object typically associated with gathering and dialogue. ○ When flipped, it symbolizes dysfunction or disruption. The fisherman navigates a path once used for fishing but now scarred by craters from bombings and signs warning of unexploded ordinances. Marking the Land: The fisherman’s path is an ephemeral way of marking the land, aligning with the concept of creating temporary, non-permanent traces—similar to footprints. Selected Work: Kent Monkman, The Fourth World, 2012 ○ Kent Monkman: Was born in 1965 in St. Mary’s Ontario, Canada Cree artist Member of the Fisher River cree Nation Does: Painting Film Video Performance Installation ○ Artistic Technique: Fourth World employs appropriation, where an artist reuses elements from another artwork to impart a new meaning. This practice became notable in the 1980s, with artists like Sherrie Levine, who created works by photographing existing photographs, changing their significance through context, authorship, and intent. ○ Artistic Influences: Monkman’s work references two major art traditions: Nineteenth-century American Romantic landscape painting, known for idealized depictions of nature. Twentieth-century site-specific sculpture, art designed for and integral to a specific location. ○ Monkman's Background: Kent Monkman is a Cree artist and a leading figure among Indigenous North American artists. ○ Depiction in the Artwork: Monkman features three blonde-haired male figures, two on horseback and one waving a camouflage shirt, herding a group of bison beneath Yosemite Falls. The scene references Albert Bierstadt’s painting Cho-looke, the Yosemite Fall (1864). ○ Historical Context: Albert Bierstadt was a German-born, American painter who, along with contemporaries like Thomas Moran and Thomas Hill, was part of a notable group of artists in the late 19th century. These artists painted the dramatic landscapes of the American West, incorporating European Romanticism to evoke awe and encourage public interest in western expansion. Such paintings were linked to the concept of Manifest Destiny, which justified the expansion of U.S. territories to the Pacific Ocean. Bierstadt's works also influenced Congress to establish national parks, preserving the scenic environments depicted in his paintings. ○ Impact of American Romantic Landscape Paintings: While the Romantic tradition in American landscape painting, exemplified by artists like Bierstadt, helped in protecting sites such as Yosemite National Park from large-scale development, it simultaneously reinforced harmful narratives. The governance of these lands by the U.S. government led to the displacement and brutal treatment of Indigenous peoples, contributing to the California genocide of the 19th century. ○ Exclusion of Indigenous Peoples: Neither Monkman’s painting nor Bierstadt’s original depicted the Miwok peoples, the Indigenous inhabitants of the Yosemite region in 1864. Bierstadt's painting shows only white pioneers—one group gathered around a campfir