Mid-Term Study Notes PDF

📝 Mid-Term Study Notes 1) Models of Communication 💩 a) Early Models of Communication (Earliest Stage) What type of people created them? Why were they created? Shannon & Weaver Communication Model, aka the Linear Mo...

📝 Mid-Term Study Notes 1) Models of Communication 💩 a) Early Models of Communication (Earliest Stage) What type of people created them? Why were they created? Shannon & Weaver Communication Model, aka the Linear Model of Communication Developed during WWII, addressed communication challenges in warfare. Claude Shannon’s work demonstrated how binary circuits could represent logical functions, laying the foundation for modern computing and efficient communication. This model became a key framework in understanding communication systems. Mid-Term Study Notes 1  🗿 Historically: 🌃 Later simplified to: Source > Transmitter > Sender > Message > Receiver Signal > Receiver > Destination b) Interaction Models of Communication (Past, but a bit more evolved) What new elements do they bring, what are the advantages? De Fleur’s model is an early version of an interaction model – the primary contribution is that it adds a feedback loop. This makes the model a better fit for human communication. We are always communicating and giving feedback all the time. Linear Model of Communication Interactive Model of Communication This model was still lacking something present in models from communication-adjacent disciplines (e.g., linguistics) c) The Transactive Model of Communication (Today) Before Transactive Model, there was Meaning of Meaning Model Mid-Term Study Notes 2  Meaning of Meaning Model important as it shows us that communication is symbolic delves into the issue of interpretation and meaning sets up a dynamic process; consider for example that words have assigned meanings meanings can change overtime 💡 e.g. “SLAY” was not what it means in today’s context. CB was chibai not Circuit Breaker. Transactive Model of Communication The model used widely in today’s world! As we evolve, people realised that communication is dynamic and ongoing. Messages are sent both ways simultaneously. Mid-Term Study Notes 3  In the cloud of shared meaning, meaning can be shared (or not), communication thrives (or fails), which is why context matters. Each communicator has a field of experience that affects every part of the process. 💡 Fields of experience: beliefs, attitudes, values, and experiences that each participant brings to a communication event. People with similar fields of experience = more likely to understand each other & vice versa. Relationship to other communication phenomenon like teamwork/team diversity Why are diverse teams smarter? Diverse teams focus more on facts improves decision-making by encouraging more accurate and objective thinking. Mid-Term Study Notes 4  diverse perspectives prompts groups to reexamine facts, stay objective, and remain vigilant, reducing biases and errors in decision-making. process facts more carefully. Diverse teams are more innovative businesses can boost innovation by increasing gender and cultural diversity. diversity helps avoid conformity and fosters innovative thinking. 2) Communication Definitions 💩 a) Classifications of defining communication 3 ways to classify definitions of communication 1. Level of Observation Some definitions are broad and inclusive; others are restrictive. General Restrictive “Communication is the “Communication is a system process that links (of telephones or discontinuous parts of the telegraphs) for living world to one another.” communicating information & orders.” 2. Intentionality Some definitions include only purposeful message sending and receiving; others do not impose this. Requires Intent Does not require intent Mid-Term Study Notes 5  “Communication is situations “Communication is a where someone sends a process that shares message to another person something with many with the clear goal of people that used to belong influencing their behaviour.” to just one or a few.” 3. Judgement Some definitions imply success, effectiveness, or accuracy. Presumes communication is Does not judge the outcome successful “Communication is the “Communication is the transmission of information.” verbal interchange of a thought or idea.” Here information is transmitted, but it is not necessarily received or The assumption in this definition is that understood. a thought or idea is successfully exchanged. b) Elements of the CS0201 definition of communication Instead of settling on a definition, we can identify elements of a definition. Most models (and CS0201) agree on communication being: A Process A Message Intentional / It unfolds over time. You can’t communicate Unintentional nothing; must be People will attach content. meaning to almost everything that is said or done. Dynamic Symbolic Mid-Term Study Notes 6  May change due to The message isn’t just noise, feedback, or that, there’s more to it. other factors. 3) Communication History 💩 a) Communication as the catalyst for human society We are studying the catalyst of human society, the spark. Why? The history of humans is intertwined with the history of communication b) Earliest evidence of communication // Key Events 1. Visual Communication 45,000 BCE: Earliest artefacts of visual communication discovered, including the Neanderthal plaque and a mammoth tooth in Hungary. 2. Development of Written Communication 8,000 BCE: The first token system emerges, coinciding with the start of agricultural economies in Mesopotamia. 1446: Johannes Gutenberg invents the printing press with movable type. 1470s: The first printing press in England is established by William Caxton, who also prints the earliest ad flyer. 3. Newspaper Mid-Term Study Notes 7  1480 AD: The first general mail system is created in France, followed by Denmark in 1624 and England in 1625. 1485 AD: The first newspaper is claimed by Hungary, with various other efforts emerging around this time. 1500s: The House of Fuggers circulates letters among correspondents, an early form of news dissemination. 1600-1620 AD: The first sustained production of newspapers begins in Europe. 1620 AD: The first English-language newspaper, The Courant, is published in Amsterdam. 4. Telegraphy 1838 AD: Samuel Morse invents telegraphy and petitions Congress to build an experimental line. 1844 AD: Morse connects Baltimore and Washington with the famous message, "What hath God brought?" 1846 AD: The Associated Press wire service is organised. 1848 AD: Trading begins on the Chicago Commodity Exchange as the telegraph reaches the city. 💡 Hint: this idea of finance driving communication innovations (or being early adopters) will come back. 5. Advertising/PR/Journalism 1200 AD: Modern signs and names become routine for artisans' shops. Mid-Term Study Notes 8  1704 AD: The first U.S. newspaper carries advertising in the Boston News- Letter. 1842 AD: Volney Palmer establishes an early media buying service. 1922 AD: The first radio advertising airs on WEAF in New York. 💡 Media Buying: buying media space e.g. digital banner ad on a website, a FB, IG or X ad. Media Buyer: "plans" a media buy, decides what to buy to achieve client's goals 6. Political responses to media innovations 1529: King Henry VIII outlaws imported publications in England, marking the beginning of governmental control over the press. 1644: John Milton advocates for free expression as a means to discover truth in his work Aeropagitica. 1770s: Thomas Paine and others publish pamphlets promoting American independence and the value of a free press. 1789: The U.S. and French constitutions are adopted, including provisions guaranteeing freedom of expression. c) Innis and Poe’s views on the history of communication Key points of agreement or disagreement on meaning of differing eras, or key periods in communication history Innis's Views (EAC) Poe's Views (HOC) Believes there’s 2 types of medias: Straightforward (Straight-poe-ward): Mid-Term Study Notes 9  1. Time-Binding Media: Oral The Oral Tradition era, Manuscript traditions, stone carvings. era, Internet era, etc. 2. Space-Binding Media: Papyrus, But some have similar implications print, electronic media to Innis’ work Oral Traditions Oral Traditions time-binding confined to face-to-face interactions localised communities used for passing knowledge demands authority based on oral across generations traditions Rise of Writing Rise of Writing marks a transition to space- binding manages surplus and organise media social hierarchies supports administrative and enables record-keeping and military expansion formalised communication Both emphasise the role of writing in the development of complex societies and centralised power structures. Writing facilitates preservation of knowledge across time & space. Print as First Mass Medium Print as First Mass Medium printing accelerates spread of print standardises communication ideas enables mass production of texts supports the rise of nationalism reduces the time required to supports the decline of religious or disseminate other ideological monopolies information The Rise of Audiovisual Media The Rise of Audiovisual Media electronic media begins to shift audiovisual media allows real-time societal communication across vast Mid-Term Study Notes 10  focus distances from time-bound cultural memory further globalising social relations to instantaneous communication and influencing political structures Both recognise the impact of these media on the compression of space and time, leading to a more interconnected yet potentially fragmented global society! EAC worries about HOC worries about The risk of societal imbalance due to The increasing power of economic the dominance of space-binding interests and global connectivity media 4) The Self 💩 a) The Self – Different Concepts & Terms know the bolded terms and vocabulary of the self presented in CRAFT201 and Lecture Looking Glass Self - we see ourselves reflected in other people’s reactions to us and then form our self-concept based on how we believe others perceive us Self-Concept - The changing, evolving narrative of who we think we are. - Influenced by both personal attributes and social contexts. ✅ “I am a good person. I am logical.” Mid-Term Study Notes 11  Self-Awareness - The ability to focus on oneself and align actions with internal standards. - Crucial for personal growth and effective communication. ✅ “I am aware that I am fat, but once I lock in I will see changes in myself!” 💡 Self-Concept can change based on context and interactions (e.g., personal vs. group identities). e.g. Personal - “I am smart.” Group - “Everyone so onz, maybe I am not that smart.” Self-Awareness enhances the ability to evaluate and refine self-concept. Self-Esteem - A personal evaluation of our self-concept (positive or negative judgment). - Can vary with experiences and context. ✅ “I’m insecure that I am fat.” Self-Efficacy - Confidence in one's ability to perform specific tasks. - Directly influences self-esteem; higher self-efficacy often leads to higher self esteem. ✅ “Although I do not have prior experience, I am confident that I will be able to learn the information and do well on the test.” Mid-Term Study Notes 12  💡 Relationship Between Both: - High self-efficacy boosts self-esteem by reinforcing confidence in abilities. - Low self-efficacy can decrease self-esteem. Self-Compassion - Treating oneself with kindness rather than harsh judgment. - Involves recognising that flaws and failures are part of the human experience. - Self-kindness is part of this b) Self-Discrepancy Theory Relationship to self-esteem and other concepts related to the self Ideal Self: Who we aspire to be. ✅ “I aspire to be a Creative Director of Google in the future.” Ought Self: Who we believe others expect us to be. ✅ “My mother wants me to become a doctor in future.” Actual Self: Who we perceive ourselves to be right now. ✅ “I’m an academic weapon right now!!!” Mid-Term Study Notes 13  Impact on Self-Esteem: - Discrepancies between these selves can lead to negative emotions and lower self-esteem. - This shows how self-esteem / self-identity can be influenced by external pressures (ought self) and personal desires (ideal self). c) Social Comparison Theory These theories are critical in shaping self-concept based on who we compare ourselves to. We evaluate ourselves by comparing traits and abilities to others. Upward Comparison: Comparing to someone perceived as better; can inspire improvement or lead to lower self-esteem. ✅ “The dancers are damn good, I can use this as an inspiration to train and be better!” “The dancers are damn good, I think I cannot match up to them…” Downward Comparison: Comparing to someone perceived as worse; generally boosts self-esteem. ✅ “The JC students have no design background, SP MAD students are gonna dominate!” Better-Than-Average Effect (BTAE): Bias where individuals perceive themselves as superior in various traits – this leads to a tendency to compare up – why? Mid-Term Study Notes 14  ✅ “I’m the only graphic designer in WKW, presentation slides confirm better than the rest.” Social Comparison Assimilation: Aligning oneself with higher standards, though less common and requires specific conditions. Contrast: Self-evaluations increase with downward comparisons, decrease with upward ones. Self-fulfilling Prophecies: Negative beliefs about oneself lead to behaviours that confirm these beliefs. 💡 Interventions like self-affirmation can help disrupt these cycles. Don’t fall victim of the famous job interview studies. “You are at a disadvantage because you think you are at a disadvantage.” Mid-Term Study Notes 15  How can social comparison theory function in advertising? People compare themselves to others they see online to evaluate their own lives, achievements, or choices. Marketers leverage this through showcasing attractive lifestyles, products, or experiences through influencers and advertisements. This creates a desire in consumers to purchase similar products or adopt certain behaviours to feel better about themselves. This makes consumers feel a need to purchase similar items to fit in, feel successful, or boost their self-esteem. 5) Perception 💩 a) Definition Perception: process which individuals interpret sensory information to make sense of the world. There are 3 elements to the process: b) Selecting, Organising, Interpreting 1. Selecting: Choosing what sensory input to focus on 2. Organising: Arranging selected information into a meaningful structure 3. Interpreting: Assigning meaning to that organised information Selecting Quality that makes something stand out or seem important. Organising Structuring events based on how we personally experience them. Mid-Term Study Notes 16  Interpreting Assigning meaning to sensory input based on previous knowledge or experiences. With machines, it can be problematic. c) Schema (Human-Machine Communication) Schema (or Schemata) refers to mental frameworks that help us organise and interpret information. People rely on mental shortcuts (schemas) in both human and human- machine interactions In HMC, people apply familiar social frameworks to machines, causing them to project human-like traits onto robots. This automatic response blurs the line between human and machine interaction d) Attributions Attributions: The explanations we create for why things happen or why people behave the way they do. Internal Attribution: Attributing behaviour to someone’s personal traits ✅ “She seems kind.” External Attribution: Attributing behaviour to external circumstances ✅ “She looks stressed because of work.” Fundamental Attribution Error Mid-Term Study Notes 17  People tend to overemphasise internal causes for other’s behaviour, disregarding external influences. Common in online interactions where situational cues are limited. ❌ Assuming someone is rude rather than they are just stressed e) Uncertainty Reduction Theory Strategies to reduce uncertainty 1. Passive Strategies: Observing someone without direct interaction to infer behaviour ✅ Pros: Low-risk, unobtrusive ❌ Cons: Information might be incomplete or inaccurate 2. Active Strategies: Asking others about the person to get indirect information ✅ Pros: Provides useful insights through 3rd-party inputs ❌ Cons: Risk embarrassment if found out; 3rd-party info can be unreliable Mid-Term Study Notes 18  3. Interactive Strategies: Directly engaging the person in conversation ✅ Pros: Most effective, allows mutual exchange ❌ Cons: Requires more effort and vulnerability For dealing with robots, it’s more of dealing with familiarity and tech literacy rather than thinking of ways of tackling human. f) Impression Formation Gestalt: A general, quick impression of a person, either positive or negative. Fast but oversimplified judgements. Useful in brief encounters but can lead to misleading perceptions. Positivity Bias Tendency to focus on positive information when forming first impressions. Leads to generally favourable initial judgments. Negativity Effect Emphasis on negative traits, seen as more revealing of true character. A single negative trait can dominate the overall impression. Creates Mid-Term Study Notes 19  ✅👼 Halo Effect: A positive impression causes everyone to view all of person’s actions favourably. ❌🔇 Horn Effect: A negative impression causes us to interpret everything about a person negatively. Algebraic Impression: A detailed evaluation where we add and subtract positive and negative traits over time. More accurate and flexible than Gestalts. Requires more mental effort, allowing for continual revision as new information arises. Humans do not naturally use this method cos wtf? it’s damn calculative 🌟 Creating an excel sheet based on positive and negative human traits Stereotyping Impressions: Categorising people into social groups and making assumptions based on those categories Mean girls vibe. Judging, generalising, categorising. 🌟 that person is gay cos he wear nail polish 6) Personality Mid-Term Study Notes 20  💩 a) The Big 5 (OCEAN) Model Openness: Open to new things, adventure ✅ Planning a vacation, willing to try new things, high in O Conscientiousness: How much you are motivated by ideal/ought self ✅ Stuck as a barista at 40 yo and dw pursue his dreams, low in C Extraversion: Where you get energy from ✅ How sociable you are Agreeableness: How cool you are with stuff ✅ Team projects, decisions. Neuroticism: Negative emotions ✅ Not easily phased by negativity: Low Mid-Term Study Notes 21  b) Lexical Hypothesis Advantages of lexical studies and shortcomings Lexical Hypothesis: Those personality characteristics that are important to a group of people will eventually become a part of that group's language. More important personality characteristics are more likely to be encoded into language as a single word. ✅ Advantages: can be adjusted to many different related studies study descriptions of characters in books ask people to describe their loved ones analyse how investigative journalists describe their interviewees read diary entries ask people about their exes compare historical accounts of the same person ❌ Shortcomings: languages are different. e.g. singlish meanings do not directly translate to english. b) HEXACO Model Mid-Term Study Notes 22  Key differences from Big 5 Model What happens when the Big 5, derived almost entirely off English language studies, is instead derived from a more diverse body of literature? A 6th factor emerges, forming HEXACO. the others (sometimes) shift slightly New | Shift 🆕 Honesty-humility (H) Facets: Sincerity, fairness, greed avoidance, modesty Adjectives: Sincere, honest, faithful, loyal, modest/unassuming 🌟 Emotionality (E) Facets: Fearfulness, Anxiety, Dependance, Sentimentality Adjectives: emotional, oversensitive, sentimental, fearful, anxious, vulnerable 🌟 Extraversion (X) Facets: Social self-esteem, social boldness, sociability, liveliness Adjectives: outgoing, lively, extraverted, sociable, talkative, cheerful, active 🌟 Agreeableness (A) Facets: Forgivingness, gentleness, flexibility, patience Adjectives: patient, tolerant, peaceful, mild, agreeable, lenient, gentle Mid-Term Study Notes 23  🌟 Conscientiousness (C): Facets: Organization, diligence, perfectionism, prudence Adjectives: organised, disciplined, diligent, careful, thorough, precise 🌟 Openness to experience (O): Facets: Aesthetic appreciation, inquisitiveness, creativity, unconventionality Adjectives: intellectual, creative, unconventional, innovative, ironic What is the unique thing that HEXACO brings above and beyond the Big 5 model? Honesty-Humility factor 🌟 this sixth factor specifically captures traits related to ethical or pro- social behaviour, such as sincerity, fairness, and modesty. The Big 5 model does NOT explicitly account for these traits, which are crucial for predicting behaviours like materialism, unethical practices, and the dark triad of psychopathy, cunningness, and narcissism. thus, the honesty-humility dimension offers a more nuanced understanding of anti-social and unethical behaviours. Mid-Term Study Notes 24  7) Self-Disclosure 💩 a) Self-Disclosure definitions and conceptualisations “the purposeful disclosure of personal information to another person” b) Johari Window Historical use and prototypical procedure Johari Window Designed in 1955, this helps individuals better understand their relationships with themselves and others. Commonly used in professional and counselling settings. The idea is that this can help individuals recognise their strengths, weaknesses, blind spots, which can encourage open communication and mutual understanding. Mid-Term Study Notes 25  Open Area Blind Spot 🌟 Information known to both the self and others 🌟 Information known to others but not to the self e.g. where you study at e.g. TOP discussing if I got GL qualities Hidden Area Unknown Area 🌟 Information known to the self but hidden from others 🌟 Information unknown to both the self and others e.g. secrets e.g. hidden qualities Mid-Term Study Notes 26  🤔 How it works: 1. Participants choose adjectives from a list they feel best describe their own personality 2. Peers then select adjectives from the same list that they believe describe the participant 3. The chosen adjectives are placed into a two-by-two grid, creating four distinct quadrants c) Why people self-disclose; functions of self-disclosure Two Clear Motives Relationship Building, Impression Management Relationship Building 💞 Impression Management 😮 Form Connections Control Perceptions Find Common Ground Enhance Social Standing Innate Desire to Be Social Common techniques include explaining and apologising Gradual Sharing What this leads to: What this leads to: Increased Liking Uncertainty Reduction Enhanced Relationships Mutual Exchange d) Social Penetration Theory: Onion Mid-Term Study Notes 27  🧅 Relationships are like peeling an onion with layers of personal information, from the outer, visible traits to the inner, private self Peripheral Layers Basic demographic information (e.g., birthplace, age, gender, ethnicity). 🧅 acquaintances Intermediate Layers Attitudes and opinions on broader topics like music preferences, political views, and favourite foods or entertainment. 🧅 friend level Central Layers Core elements of the self, including self-awareness, self-concept, self- esteem, personal values, fears, and unique personality traits. 🧅 deepest level of intimacy, shared only in close, trusting relationship e) Social Penetration Theory: Relationship Stages Orientation Stage Mid-Term Study Notes 28  Initial stage where communication is superficial and based on safe, surface-level topics 💞 Basic Introductions, Weather Exploratory Affective Stage Individuals begin to share more personal feelings about everyday topics 💞 Favourite Food, Movies Affective Stage More personal and private information is disclosed 💞 What are your career aspirations in future…? Stable Stage People share their most intimate thoughts and feelings, demonstrating full openness and trust. 💞 Do you wanna have kids in future? Depenetration Stage A gradual withdrawal of disclosure and intimacy, leading to the potential distancing of the relationship. Mid-Term Study Notes 29  💔 Drifting away (not a mandatory stage for all relationships!) f) Social Penetration Theory: Breadth vs Depth Breadth The range of topics individuals are willing to discuss 🍞 Discussing a variety of general topics like Food, Travel, Hobbies, Work Depth Willingness to go deeper into within those topics 🌊 Sharing deeply personal beliefs or experiences, such as family issues or personal challenges Self-Disclosure through both breadth and depth foster a close relationship! 8) Non-Verbal Communication 💩 Nonverbal communication: the transfer of information through gestures, facial expressions, body language, spatial behaviour, environment, etc Often conveys more meaning than verbal communication Mid-Term Study Notes 30  Important in both daily interactions and relationship building a) Principles/Assumptions it is more ambiguous than verbal it has fewer rules 🌟 a smile can mean friendliness, sarcasm, 🌟 guided by informal social norms discomfort it is more involuntary it combines with verbal communication 🌟 facial expressions, posture changes, can reveal our true 🌟 to create COMMUNICATION! emotions b) Codes Kinesics 💃 Vocalics 🎙️ Study of body movements voice, pitch, volume, pace of speech Facial expressions, eye contact, gestures, posture emphasis on words decide the tone Haptics 👋 Proxemics 🌌 touch physical space and distance intimate = close relationship Mid-Term Study Notes 31  Physical Appearance 👄 Olfactics 👃 pretty privilege smell can communicate messages hygiene, personal habits, wealth Artifacts 👕 Environment 🏞️ what you wear perceives an high ceiling can mean you are impression richer soft lighting = intimate environment Colour 🎨 colour psychology and associations red is widely recognised as a symbol for "stop," "danger," and "hot” c) Skepticism of nonverbal communication in a nutshell: seeing shouldn’t always be believing. Mid-Term Study Notes 32  Common belief: “The body never lies” Reality: Research finds there are no definitive nonverbal signs of lying Stress indicators like fidgeting or micro-expressions reflect discomfort but not necessarily deception 9) Gender 💩 a) Gender & Sex Gender: consists of social, psychological, and cultural traits generally associated with one sex or the other Gender influences communication styles, example of a stereotype include: women: open communicators men: struggle with emotions stereotypes lead to different concepts: Gender & Self 🤳 Gender & Language 🌐 women: empathy, sensitivity, language exaggerates gender diffs compassion “Opposite Sex”, “Male & Female) men: assertiveness, competitiveness gendered self-concepts extend to professional life, resulting in gender roles it is less about fitting into binary boxes and more about navigating changing expectations in society Mid-Term Study Notes 33  Gender & Perceptions 👀 💸 Gender & Career - Wage Gap 👁️ visual women: see the world in an emotional, men are evaluated more favourably focused on feelings way in male-dominated jobs, women vice versa men: see the world in a cool, detached, logical way scale is still shifted towards men 🧠 cognitive and furthermore typically the higher women: spatial relationships, paying jobs are typically male emotional reading, and language stereotyped processing men: better at understanding time, In high-stakes scenarios like speed, 3D mental rotation negotiations, gender perceptions shape outcomes Gender & Non-Verbal Communication 🔇 men: make more eye-contact generally women: lesser, but makes more when they are in higher power positions (just an example) Gender & the Business of Communication 📈 As androgyny and gender fluidity become mainstream, brands must adapt by addressing gender norms in both their advertising and product offerings. e.g. Target removed gender-based signage in some key areas of its stores to drive more sales. 10) Human-Machine Communication Mid-Term Study Notes 34  💩 a) What is human machine communication? Quasi-Second Interlocutor A machine or digital agent that simulates human communication but lacks full human cognitive and communicative abilities. Traits: only simulate biological and psychological Can only respond based on programmed logic, no true understanding b) Relationship to perception processes ✅ Schema (HMC) Refers to mental frameworks that help us organise and interpret information. People rely on mental shortcuts (schemas) in both human and human-machine interactions In HMC, people apply familiar social frameworks to machines, causing them to project human-like traits onto robots. This automatic response blurs the line between human and machine interaction c) Issues in HMC Communication vs Simulation Mid-Term Study Notes 35  Humans perceive communication as an exchange of meaning, but machines can only simulate this exchange Attribution and Intentionality In human communication, we attribute intent and meaning to others’ actions. How do we navigate this when machines lack intent? Is it ethical to attribute emotions, intelligence, or intent to machines that are merely executing code? “We interpret machine behaviours AS IF they were social…” Ethical and Social Implications As robots become more integrated into social systems, they may disrupt existing social dynamics, creating a paradoxical dependence on machines Human Impulse “You look lonely, I can fix that.” d) “As If” Behaviour Humans attribute value to machines, seeing them as their creations, and behave as if machines are genuine communicators. 11) Culture 💩 a) What is culture? An established, coherent set of beliefs, attitudes, values, and practices shared by a large group of people. Intercultural Communication Mid-Term Study Notes 36  When members of two or more cultures or co-cultures exchange messages in a way that is influenced by their different cultures b) 6 Dimensions of Cultural Difference 1️⃣ Power Distance Usually applies to hierarchical systems. Some groups of people carry more power in their democracy/govt. Low High Power is widely distributed Power is narrowly distributed Value equality Accept unequal distribution Accept challenge to authority Discourage challenge to authority Parents guide Parents dictate Boss is leader Boss is decision maker 🔋 North Korea (High) vs Singapore (Low) 2️⃣ Individualism (vs. Collectivism) One focuses on immediate priorities, one focuses on the bigger picture. ‘I’ Culture ‘We’ Culture Prioritises needs of the Prioritises needs of the group individual Permanent membership Flexible membership Group decision making Mid-Term Study Notes 37  Individual decision making Value duty, tradition, etc. Value autonomy, equality, etc. 🕊️ America (Individualism), China (Collectivism) 3️⃣ Communication Context How people express themselves when reacting to things. Low context needed = Need more words to explain Low High Explicit Subtle Relies on words Relies on cues To the point Around the point Value self expression Value harmony 💬 USA (Low), when dk what to say they’ll be like “sorry could you repeat that?” SG (High), “huh?” 4️⃣ Masculinity (vs. Femininity) Linked to gender roles. Society that values ambition and success are deemed more masculine, society that values nurturing traditions are deemed more feminine. Masculinity Femininity Promotes traditionally masculine Promotes traditionally feminine values values Mid-Term Study Notes 38  Ambition, achievement, Nurturing, quality of life, service possessions No differentiation in roles Sex-specific roles 💪 China, Korea, Japan (Masculinity) Sweden, Northern Europe (Femininity) 5️⃣ Uncertainty Avoidance Societies that are willing to embrace change or not. Can take COVID-19 for example. Low High Welcomes Uncertainty Avoids uncertainty Comfortable with the unfamiliar Seek out the familiar More risk taking Less risk taking Tolerance Deviance is dangerous 🌫️ Singapore (Low) Japan (High) 6️⃣ Time Orientation Looking at the present or bigger picture. Can happens to countries, organisations, families Short Term Long Term Conventional historic point of view Mid-Term Study Notes 39  A short-term orientation fosters Pragmatic future-oriented virtues related to the past and perspective present — in particular, respect for A long-term orientation fosters tradition, preservation of "face," virtues directed toward the future and personal steadiness and —in particular, perseverance and stability. thrift and ordering relationships by status. ⏱️ Younger employees would think of long-term plans for the company Auntie employees would want you to do something instantly. c) Non-Verbal communication in Tanzania Handshakes are important Right hand for eating Left hand for wiping shit When receiving item, use both hands or right hand only! c) Relationship of Charging Bull and Fearless Girl to culture Bull = symbolism of masculinity The Fearless Girl statue is considered by many to symbolise female empowerment, challenging gender norms d) Organisational Culture Mid-Term Study Notes 40  Definitions and nature of organisational vs traditional sense of culture Organisational Culture (OC) serves as a foundational set of beliefs shaped by the members of an organisation through external adaptation or internal integration. a collection of fundamental assumptions, norms, values, and shared con-duct transmitted to newcomers. encompasses a common set of values, behaviours, conventions, attitudes, assumptions, and beliefs among organisational members. Relationship of organisational culture to company values, mission, policies, etc. 1. Ensuring Alignment on Mission, Purpose, and Vision 🌟 Mission: What customer need does your company fulfils? Purpose: How does it make a positive impact? Vision: Where is the company headed and what strategies will get it there? 2. Inspiring Confidence in the Face of Challenges 🌟 Calm, transparent leadership fosters a resilient culture. 3. Leveraging Mistakes as a Source of Learning 🌟 Embrace mistakes Mid-Term Study Notes 41  From Application Readings 1. Know your audience 2. Cater the content 3. Align on purpose 4. Design the process 5. Curate tone and style (6Cs) Mid-Term Study Notes 42