4HH3 Exam Terms PDF

4HH3 Exam Terms Algal Blooms Harmful Algal Blooms -​ The rapid growth of algae or cyanobacteria that may cause harm to people, animals, and local ecology -​ The algae or cyanobacteria may look like foam, scum, paint, or mats on water -​ A distinction is made between HABs and normal al...

4HH3 Exam Terms Algal Blooms Harmful Algal Blooms -​ The rapid growth of algae or cyanobacteria that may cause harm to people, animals, and local ecology -​ The algae or cyanobacteria may look like foam, scum, paint, or mats on water -​ A distinction is made between HABs and normal algal growth, since not all algal blooms are harmful; some may even be beneficial -​ Blooms occur in freshwater and saltwater Types of Blooms Green Tide (Freshwater) -​ Created by photosynthetic and macroalgae algae found throughout the world. -​ Macroalgae often outcompete seagrass and coral reefs, resulting in habitat loss and less oxygen and sunlight Red tide (marine waters) -​ Created by phytoplankton that have a reddish pigment. -​ It is common in the east and west coasts of the U.S., Florida, and the Gulf of Mexico Dolichospermum -​ Genus of cyanobacteria commonly found in freshwater phytoplankton. -​ They may produce microcystins (potent liver toxin and possible human carcinogen Diatoms -​ Diatoms are a type of plankton called phytoplankton. -​ They are among the most important microscopic sea organism acting as food and generating 20-50% of oxygen on planet earth. -​ But, one species of diatom can be toxic in red tides IPCC THE OCEAN & CRYOSPHERE IN A CHANGING CLIMATE -​ The IPCC’s Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere (2019) was the first IPCC report that directly linked HABs to climate change -​ The observed trends in harmful algal blooms are attributed partly to the effects of ocean warming, marine heatwaves, oxygen loss, eutrophication [process in which a body of water becomes enriched with minerals and nutrients] and pollution (high confidence) Human Influence of HABs -​ Certain environmental conditions are known to bring about HAB growth Warmer Temperatures -​ Green algae prefers warmer water.  -​ Warmer temperatures prevents water from mixing,allowing for algae to thicken & grow faster. -​ Warmer water is easier for small organisms to move through and allows algae to float to the surface faster Higher CO2 Levels -​ Algae need carbon dioxide to survive and thrive. -​ As such, higher levels of carbon dioxide in the air and water can allow for rapid growth of algae. -​ Carbon dioxide is one of the main GHGs that humans produce Excessive Nutrients -​ Excessive nutrients (i.e., nitrogen and phosphorus) from fertilizers, sewage waste, and agricultural runoff are also ingredients that allow for algae to grow Maximum Bloom Extent (MBE): in km2 is the total area where algal blooms were detected at any time -​ Highest levels in Asia and North America Bloom Occurence: BO in % is the frequency of which algal blooms were detected over the time period Bloom Severity Western Lake Erie -​ Bloom severity index (SI) is based on the amount of algal biomass over the peak 30- day season. -​ An SI above 5.0 is a potentially harmful bloom. -​ In 2022, the bloom had a severity of 6.8 -​ The Mycrocystis (a genus of cyanobacteria) bloom in Western Lake Erie at bloom peak Algal Bloom in Lake Winnipeg -​ In Canada, blooms often occur during summer to early fall, when temperatures are favourable for algal growth Routes of Exposure Skin Contact A person can be exposed to HABs and their toxins through skin contact with water. In these cases, skin irritation and other reactions can occur, depending on the length of exposure Breathing in Toxins A person can be exposed to HABs and their toxins through breathing tiny water droplets, mist, or sea spray – even if you do not enter the water. This possible induces breathing difficulties Swallowing Contaminated Water A person can accidentally swallow water with HABs during recreational activities (i.e., swimming). Though uncommon, drinking water may be toxic if water facilities faulty Swallinging Contaminated Food Fish and shellfish that come from sources contaminated with toxins from HABs, can become contaminated themselves. Eating this seafood can result in exposure to HAB toxins Illnesses and Symptoms: Cyanobacteria in Freshwater Cyanotoxins produced by cyanobacteria can include hepatotoxins (i.e., liver toxins such as microcystins) and neurotoxins (i.e., anatoxins, saxitoxins, etc. Touching or Breathing Touching or breathing in droplets of contaminated air can cause irritation of the skin, eyes, nose, throat, and lungs. It may also cause gastrointestinal or allergic reactions Eating or Swallowing Eating contaminated food or dietary supplements, or swallowing contaminated water, can cause stomach pain, headaches, neurological symptoms (i.e., muscle weakness, dizziness), vomiting, diarrhea, liver damage, and fever Clear Lake California -​ In 2021, a sample from Clear Lake, California showed a concentration of the liver toxin microcystin 20,000x higher than EPA guidance for recreational waters. -​ Around 280 homes were affected by a ‘Do Not Drink’ advisory; these were mainly homes with private wells that drew water directly from the lake. -​ It is said that intense heat and drought conditions in California are producing favourable conditions for cyanobacteria blooms, that grow in nutrient rich, stagnant water. -​ HAB outbreaks in California are only increasing; in 2020 they experienced a 60% increase in reported HABs from 2019 California Native American Tribes California is home to 109 federally recognized Native American Tribes, with another 78 more petitioning for recognition. Beyond drinking, many of these tribes rely on the water for its beneficial uses and cultural practices that also affect their health. Tribal Beneficial Uses TRIBAL TRADITION & CULTURE (CUL): Uses of water that support the cultural, spiritual, ceremonial, or traditional rights or lifeways of California Native American Tribes, including, but not limited to: navigation, ceremonies, or fishing, gathering, or consumption of natural aquatic resources, including fish, shellfish, vegetation, and materials. TRIBAL SUBSISTENCE FISHING (T-SUB): Uses of water involving the non-commercial catching or gathering of natural aquatic resources, including fish and shellfish, for consumption by individuals, households, or communities of California Native American Tribes to meet needs for sustenance. DZAWADA’ENUX First Nation Community -​ On February 13, 2020, the Dzawad’enuw Indigenous community (60 people) in Kingcome Inlet, British Columbia was evacuated after the First National Health -​ Authority (FNHA) detected cyanobacteria in their well water. -​ Chief Willie Moon made the decision after several people in the village experienced flu-like symptoms. -​ Before this incident, the community has never experienced cyanobacteria in their water systems.  -​ An investigation by the FNHA was conducted after the evacuation; however, to this day, the cause and source of this contamination is unconfirmed Fredericton NB -​ Cyanotoxins not only pose a threat to humans, but animals - such as marine life, cattle, birds, and especially dogs – who risk being poisoned. -​ In July 2018, 3 dogs died after visiting the Wolastoq (Saint John River) in Fredericton, New Brunswick. -​ Two dogs ate some aquatics plants onshore, while another dog was swimming in the waters. -​ All three dogs shows signed of toxicosis; later tests revealed the presence of anatoxin, a type of neurotoxin. -​ The highest levels were observed in the dogs that ate the plant Phytoplankton In Saltwater -​ Diatoms and dinoflagellates can produce toxins that make people or animals sick Breathing or Skin Contact: Breathing in sea spray or touching brevetoxin (algal toxins produced by red tides) can cause respiratory irritation, shortness of breath, throat, eye, and skin irritation, and asthma attacks Eating Contaminated Seafood: Many types of seafood/shellfish poisonings can occur due to eating contaminated seafood. Including: Ciguatera Fish Poisoning (CFP), Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning (NSP), Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP), and many more Ciguatera Fish Poisoning 50-500,000 cases worldwide annually -​ Most common, non-bacterial, seafood illness. It is caused by eating fish with ciguatoxins in microalga and can lead to diarrhea, paralysis, and, in worst cases, death -​ Traditional endemic regions (regularly occurring in an area) for ciguatoxic fish include areas of the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific and Indian Oceans, but outbreaks have also occurred in coastal Europe and in mainland European countries from imported fish. -​ Interestingly, although CFP is the most common non-bacterial, seafood illness, its true incidence is unknown, possible due to difficulty in tracking and reporting. -​ However, since 2000 there has been an expansion in geographical range of CFP, being observed in areas like Macaronesia and Southeast Asia; this is an issue considering outbreaks in Asia result in large disease clusters due to a group consuming a single contaminated fish Extreme Heat Normal Body Conditions 35.1°C to 37°C or 95.18°F to 98.6 °F Core temperature Skin Temperature: -​ Unlike core temperatures of the body, skin temperatures can fluctuate based on the temperature of the environment  -​ During strenuous exercise, the core temperature of the body can temporarily rise to as high as 40°C (or 104 )°F Bodily Mechanisms that Decrease Body Temerature Vasodilation: Inhibition of the sympathetic centers (controls the body’s flight of fight response to stress) in the posterior hypothalamus (that control blood vessel tone) causes vasodilation of skin blood vessels (skin arteries dilate to allow heat transfer from core to skin) Sweating: When the body core temperature rises above the critical level of 37 ,°C there is an increase in the rate of heat loss by sweating – excess heat is used to convert sweat to vapor allowing the body to cool down Shivering and chemical thermogenesis: (bodily processes that generate heat within an organism) are strongly inhibited Cultural Acclimatization Every culture around the world practices methods to reduce the effects of extreme cold or heat. -​ Ancient wind towers in Iran were used to capture wind to cool the attached buildings -​ Green balconies and roofs in Singapore are used to reduce urban heat -​ Cross culturally, umbrellas and sunscreen are used to escape the effects of sun ray Physiological Acclimatization The process by which the body adapts to prolonged exposure to heat. This involves physiological changes that improve heat tolerance. -​ Lower core temperature -​ Higher sweat rate and reduced loss of sodium from sweat -​ Expansion of blood volume, higher rate of skin blood flow -​ Improved cardiovascular function Heat Index/Humidex Also known as the apparent temperature, is what the temperature feels like to the human body when relative humidity is combined with the air temperature. This has important considerations for the human body's comfort Wetbulb Globe Temp A measure of the heat stress in direct sunlight, which takes into account: temperature, humidity, wind speed, sun angle and cloud cover (solar radiation) Calculating Humidex if the air temperature is 30°C and the relative humidity is 70%, the heat index will be 41°C Heat Illness Heat Rash (Prickly Heat): An inflammatory skin condition caused by blocked sweat glands. It impairs the body's ability to cool itself. Heat Cramps: Painful muscle spasms resulting from electrolyte loss due to excessive sweating. Replenishing electrolytes is crucial for treatment. Heat Exhaustion: A more serious condition characterized by profuse sweating, weakness, dizziness, nausea, and headaches. It indicates significant fluid and electrolyte loss. Heat Stroke: The most severe heat-related illness. It occurs when the body's temperature regulation system fails, leading to a rapid rise in core temperature. Symptoms include confusion, slurred speech, loss of consciousness, seizures, and potentially death. Core body temperature exceeds 40°C. Immediate medical attention is crucial. Climate Change: Global Temperature Global warming is accelerating GHG emissions are correlated to warming temperatures. GHGs trap heat in the atmosphere and warm the climate Heat Waves: Heat waves are prolonged periods of abnormally hot weather. Across the globe, hot days are getting hotter and more frequent. In July 2023, for four days in a row, we experienced record-breaking hottest days ever recorded Heat Wave Frequency (HWF): The number of heat wave events per year. Heat Wave Duration (HWD): The total number of days with heat wave conditions per year. Average Duration of Heat Wave Events (HWAD): The average length of a single heat wave event. Infrastructure Damage Power outages cause air conditioning to fail Medical equipment may become harmed or inoperable Hospitals at risk of losing power during outage, cooling system, equipment and networks may fail Risk Factors for Heat Illness Age: Older adults (over 60) are more vulnerable due to reduced physiological capacity to regulate temperature. Chronic Disease: Individuals with heart, respiratory, or kidney diseases are at increased risk, as existing conditions can exacerbate heat stress. Medications: Certain medications can impair thermoregulation, interfering with the body's natural cooling mechanisms. Social Support: Lack of social support increases vulnerability, especially for isolated individuals who may have difficulty accessing help during heat waves. Socioeconomic Status: Poverty and homelessness elevate risk due to limited access to resources like air conditioning, adequate hydration, and healthcare. Housing: Poorly ventilated or shaded housing can increase heat exposure, leading to higher indoor temperatures. Air Conditioning (A/C): Lack of access to A/C significantly increases risk, as it limits the ability to cool down effectively during extreme heat. Occupation: Outdoor workers in hot conditions are at higher risk due to prolonged exposure to high temperatures and intense physical work 2021 Western North America Heat Wave -​ The highest temperature ever recorded in Canada (49.6 ). It was°C hotter than any temperatures recorded in Europe or South America. -​ The death toll due to this heat wave was over 1,400 people.  -​ It is estimated that the health costs of climate change in Canada due to heat- related deaths and reduced quality of life will range between $3- 3.9 billion per year by the mid-century Urban Heat Island The phenomenon where urban areas experience significantly higher temperatures than surrounding rural areas. This is due to the absorption and re-emission of heat by buildings, roads, and other infrastructure. Impermeable Surfaces: Surfaces such as asphalt and concrete that do not allow water to penetrate, reducing evaporative cooling. Evapotranspiration: The combined process of evaporation from the soil and transpiration from plants, which helps cool the environment. Urban areas have reduced evapotranspiration due to less vegetation. Albedo: The reflectivity of a surface. Dark surfaces like asphalt have low albedo and absorb more heat, while lighter surfaces have higher albedo and reflect more heat. Building Typology & Urban Geometry: The size, height, form, and arrangement of buildings can affect air flow and trap heat in urban areas. Heat Release from Human Activities: Activities such as building heating and cooling, vehicle emissions, and industrial processes release heat into the urban environment. Mitigation Strategies: Planting trees, using lighter-colored building materials, and improving urban design to enhance ventilation can help mitigate the UHI effect Street Cooling Networks Vancouver BC Process: In Vancouver, BC, areas that typically have high surface temperature and high percentage of vulnerable populations to heat corresponded to areas that had low tree canopy covers. From this discovery, in 2012, the City developed an urban heat mapping plan to identify vulnerable areas where planting trees was needed the most. Outcome: Vancouver’s Greenest City Action Plan (2012) included the City’s commitment to plant 150,000 trees across Vancouver between 2010 and 2020. Identifying Street Tree Cooling Networks has helped City staff prioritize where to focus planting efforts to maximize health and environmental benefits to the community. In 2023, the City gave away 250 trees for residents to plant as part of their climate action plan. Results Vancouver currently has a canopy cover of 23%, and they want to increase that to 30% by 2050. This project shows the importance of mapping vulnerabilities in city planning to alleviate health issues mediated by climate change Storms, Floods and Waterborne Infections Flooding:The overflow of water onto normally dry land. This can be caused by heavy rainfall, ocean waves, rapid snowmelt, or dam/levee failures. Floods are the most common and costly natural disasters in Canada. Flash Floods: A rapid and sudden flood, occurring when heavy rainfall overwhelms the ground's absorption capacity. They are exceptionally dangerous due to their speed and destructive power. Key Drivers of Canada's Flood Risk: Climate Change Changing rainfall patterns, more intense storms, accelerated snowmelt, and rising sea levels all increase flood risk. Most Canadian regions will experience higher-than-average rainfall (except southwestern Canada in summer). Extreme rainfall events will become more frequent, particularly on the east and west coasts (increased risk from storm surges and hurricanes). Northern regions will see less winter snow and earlier snowmelt. Urban Development: Flood risk is concentrated in large urban centers with high population densities. These areas are rapidly growing, and the increasing value of assets in these areas significantly increases the cost of flood damage. The prevalence of finished basements further exacerbates the problem. Economic Impacts of Floods: Catastrophic insurable losses in Canada from extreme weather events (including floods) have risen to approximately $2 billion annually. A substantial portion of these losses stems from water damage. Over time, floods have constituted a progressively larger share of total natural disaster losses Hurricanes Hurricane: A tropical storm with winds revolving around a low-pressure center. Hurricane season in the Atlantic runs from June to November. A storm becomes a hurricane when sustained winds reach 74 mph (119 km/h). The Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale categorizes hurricanes from 1 to 5 based on wind speed, with higher categories indicating greater potential for damage. Hurricanes and Climate Change: The Power Dissipation Index (PDI) shows that hurricanes are becoming more powerful over time. Warmer ocean and air temperatures, fueled by climate change, increase air moisture and lead to more intense rainfall, resulting in more frequent and stronger hurricanes. Hurricanes frequently cause widespread flooding. Beijing Floods (2023): Beijing experienced its heaviest rainfall in 140 years, displacing nearly 850,000 people. Hurricane Ian (2022): A near-Category 5 hurricane that caused $50-60 billion in damage in Florida Immediate and Short-Term Flood Dangers Drowning: Drowning is the leading cause of death in flash floods (75% of deaths). Many drown while attempting to escape flooded buildings or while driving through floodwaters. Over 57% of flood-related deaths in the US involve motor vehicles. Injuries: Injuries occur during and after floods. Moving objects in floodwaters can cause injuries, and damaged buildings pose risks of electrocution and fire. Exposure to cold floodwater can lead to hypothermia. Longer-Term Dangers: Contamination and Still Water Sewage Backups: Floodwaters can mix with pollutants (agricultural waste, chemicals, sewage, metals), contaminating waterways and drinking water sources. Combined sewer systems (carrying sewage and stormwater) can overflow, contaminating waterways or backing up into homes, increasing the risk of food and water contamination. Food Contamination: Food contamination and illness can result from flooding and power outages, due to improper food storage temperatures or contact with contaminated water. Disease by Insects: Flooding creates breeding grounds for mosquitoes, increasing the risk of mosquito-borne diseases like West Nile virus. Longer-Term Dangers: Indoor Air Quality Indoor Air Quality: Flooded buildings remain damp, fostering mold and bacteria growth, leading to poor indoor air quality. Mold spores can cause allergic reactions and respiratory problems (coughing, wheezing, asthma). Carbon Monoxide Poisoning: Floods often cause power outages. The lack of ventilation during power outages can lead to carbon monoxide poisoning from gas-powered appliances (generators, pressure washers). Longer-Term Dangers: Mental Health Mental Health and Trauma: Floods cause physical health problems, personal loss, and financial difficulties, leading to mental health issues like anxiety and depression. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can persist for years after a flood. Studies show elevated rates of depression, anxiety, and PTSD among flood victims compared to unaffected individuals. Forced Displacement Natural disasters, particularly floods, are a major cause of displacement. Floods account for about half of all disaster-related displacement worldwide. Displacement leads to various health risks: poor sanitation, inadequate shelter, malnutrition, increased risk of communicable diseases, and exposure to violence. Indigenous Communities and Flood Risk Indigenous communities in Canada are disproportionately affected by floods. While flood exposure may be similar to non-Indigenous communities, socioeconomic vulnerability is higher on reserve lands. Indigenous communities face prolonged displacement, loss of land and culture, and inadequate infrastructure Direct vs. Indirect Mortality Directly-related disaster deaths: Caused by the immediate forces of the disaster (e.g., strong winds, structural collapse). Indirectly-related disaster deaths: Result from unsafe conditions or disruptions of services caused by the disaster (e.g., hazardous roads, power outages, loss of medical access). These deaths can occur before, during, or after the disaster. Examples: Before disaster: preparation, evacuaiton During: escaping/fleeing, exposure to hazards After: Loss/disruption to usual access of medical services, stress/anxiety, social disruptions, return to unsafe environment, cleanup after, use of temporary shelter, displacement Importance of Mortality Data: Accurate mortality data is crucial for understanding the various ways disasters cause death, informing response and recovery efforts, developing prevention strategies, and supporting families affected by disasters. However, accurately counting deaths, especially indirect ones, is challenging. The discrepancy between official and estimated death tolls (e.g., Hurricane Maria) highlights this challenge. -​ Officially reported deaths from Hurricane Maria in Puerto Rico (2017) is 64 but later research has found that the actual death toll is >2975, Two years later (2019), the estimated death toll was 4,645. -​ Time Lag: most adverse health impacts peak within 6 months following hurricanes Waterborne Diseases Waterborne diseases: Illnesses caused by drinking, bathing in, or preparing food with water contaminated by bacteria, viruses, or parasites from human or animal waste. Types of Waterborne Diseases: Diarrhea: Common and often treatable, but severe cases can lead to dehydration. Dysentery: Similar to diarrhea, but the presence of blood distinguishes it. Cholera: A severe infection causing watery diarrhea, vomiting, and potentially death if untreated Diseases and CC -​ Certain marine bacteria, particularly of the Vibrio species, are known to cause diarrheal illnesses through contact or ingestion. -​ These bacteria are more likely to survive & grow as ocean waters get warmer due to climate change. -​ Moreover, the increase in rains, floods, and stagnant water can lead to an increase in waterborne disease incidence. Cholera: Cholera is caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae, found in coastal waters. The bacterium produces a toxin causing severe diarrhea. Most infections are mild, but untreated cases can be fatal. Climate change, with warmer waters and increased rainfall, expands the suitable habitat for Vibrio cholerae, increasing cholera risk. Inadequate sanitation and access to clean water increase vulnerability, particularly for displaced populations. Cholera Transmission: Infectious agent: Vibrio cholerae is the causative bacterium for cholera. It is naturally found in coastal waters and produces the cholera toxin Reservoir: Humans and water. Humans can be asymptomatic carriers of the infection Portal of Exit: For human reservoirs is through the anus by feces. The feces from a person infected with the cholera bacteria also carries the infection. Mode of Transmission: The primary mode of transmission is through ingestion of food or water with the V. cholerae bacteria Portal of Entry: The portal of entry is the mouth. Sometimes this is called the fecal-oral route Susceptible Hosts: Malnutrition increases susceptibility. Those with type O blood are also especially susceptible, but the cause for this is unknown. Children are also more prone to be symptomatic of cholera. Vector-Borne Diseases Vector Borne Disease: Vector-borne diseases (VBDs) are illnesses caused by pathogens transmitted by vectors, primarily bloodsucking insects. Vectors: Living organisms (often bloodsucking insects) that transmit pathogens from infected hosts to new hosts. Common VBDs and their vectors: Dengue: Transmitted by Aedes aegypti mosquito. Malaria: Transmitted by Anopheles mosquito. Lymphatic filariasis: Transmitted by Culex mosquito. River blindness: Transmitted by black flies. Schistosomiasis: Transmitted by freshwater snails. Lyme disease: Transmitted by black-legged ticks Global Burden of Vector-Borne Diseases -​ Over 700,000 deaths annually due to VBDs, accounting for more than 17% of all infectious diseases. -​ 80% of the global population lives in areas at risk for at least one VBD; 50% live in regions with at least two VBD threats. -​ Mosquito-borne diseases are the greatest contributors to the global burden, with about 100 mosquito-borne diseases affecting humans. Notable statistics: Chikungunya: 300,000 cases in 2023. Malaria: 219 million cases annually. Dengue: 9.6 million cases annually. Global Distribution of Vector-Borne Diseases -​ Highest burden areas are tropical and subtropical regions, disproportionately affecting poorer populations. -​ Distribution is influenced by a complex interplay of demographic, environmental, and social factors General Risk of VBDs -​ Conditions that support vector survivability and pathogen spread also support VBD spread. -​ Example: Aedes aegypti survivability increases with temperature but drops at extreme heat (35°C). -​ Mosquito breeding is influenced by precipitation and drought, creating breeding sites Non-Climate Drivers of Spread of VBDs Globalization and Environment -​ Environmental changes (deforestation, mining) alter vector habitats. -​ Globalization increases pathogen spread through travel and trade. Socio-Demographics -​ Different demographics (aging populations, expanding child populations) affect vulnerability to VBDs. -​ Economic development and crises (war, famine) increase vulnerability Public Health Systems -​ Effective surveillance and control measures can reduce exposure to vectors. -​ Quality healthcare systems can mitigate the severity of infections Urbanization -​ Urbanization leads to poor housing conditions and increased vector-host interactions. -​ High population density and poor sanitation in urban areas facilitate disease spread. Impacts of Urbanization on Infectious Disease -​ Air pollution increases susceptibility to diseases. -​ Urban expansion leads to new human-wildlife interactions. -​ Improved healthcare access can mitigate some risks, but urban settings can lead to persistent outbreaks of respiratory diseases Changing Connectivity & Travel -​ Technological advancements in transportation have increased the movement of people and pathogens. -​ Rural migrant labor in China has grown significantly, leading to health disparities VBDs and Climate Change -​ Climate change complicates the relationship with VBDs; warmer areas may become suitable for vectors. -​ Factors influencing this relationship include vector type, pathogen interactions, and migration potential. -​ Despite global warming, significant progress has been made in limiting the spread of VBDs. Malaria -​ Malaria is a life-threatening disease spread by Anopheles mosquitoes. -​ It is preventable and curable, with early symptoms often mild. -​ The CDC's origins are linked to malaria control efforts during WWII. -​ Despite favorable conditions for VBDs due to climate change, the prevalence of many VBDs is decreasing, attributed to healthcare improvements and vector surveillance. -​ 3 factors in malaria elimination: widespread insecticide use, drainage of breeding sites, and socio-economic developments. Climate Change: Malaria vs. Dengue -​ Dengue is a viral infection spread by Aedes mosquitoes, with increasing DALY rates since the 1950s due to urbanization and poor control. -​ The Americas, Southeast Asia, and Western Pacific regions are heavily affected by dengue. -​ Most people who get dengue won’t have symptoms. But for those that do, the most common symptoms are high fever, headache, body aches, nausea and rash Aedes Mosquito Life Cycle -​ Aedes mosquitoes breed in water; climate-related disasters can affect their breeding patterns. -​ Aedes aegypti is adapted to urban environments, while Aedes albopictus is more ecologically flexible -​ Future temperature suitability maps predict expanded transmission risk for Aedes mosquitoes, potentially affecting nearly 1 billion more people by 2050 Lyme Disease -​ Early symptoms include rash and flu-like symptoms; untreated cases can lead to severe health issues. -​ Climate change is expanding the range of ticks, increasing human-tick interactions. -​ Black-Legged Ticks: Ticks become infected with Lyme disease bacteria by feeding on infected wild animals (i.e.,birds and rodents). -​ Climate change contributes to longer active seasons for ticks, with urbanization leading to more interactions with humans Health Co-Benefits Scenarios and Modelled Pathways -​ Modelled scenarios and pathways were created to explore future emissions, climate change, related impacts and risks, and possible mitigation strategies. -​ The IPCC’s 6th assessment report used 5 illustrative scenarios to assess the development of different climate responses. -​ Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs): Frameworks that model future emissions, climate risks, and mitigation strategies. -​ The five illustrative scenarios are based on Shared Socio-economic Pathways (SSPs) that cover a range of climate change drivers The 5 GHG Scenarios -​ High/Very High: CO₂ doubles by 2050/2100 (SSP3-7.0, SSP5-8.5). -​ Intermediate: CO₂ stabilizes mid-century (SSP2-4.5). -​ Low/Very Low: CO₂ declines to net-zero by 2050/2070 (SSP1-1.9, SSP1-2.6) Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs): -​ Trajectories of GHG concentrations used for climate modelling -​ The values of RCPs (i.e., 2.6, 4.5, 6.0, & 8.5) refer the possible heating effects caused by GHGs. The Paris Agreement: Legally binding treaty adopted by 196 parties at COP21. Goals: Limit global temperature rise to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels. Strive to cap warming at 1.5°C to reduce climate risks. Immediate vs. Delayed Health Benefits of Climate Action Immediate: Health benefits that can occur immediately as a result of efforts to mitigate climate change (i.e., changes of transport, diet, lifestyle) Delayed: Health benefits that can affect a population in the long-run, more accrued over decades and are more abstract (i.e., reducing GHG emissions improves air quality over time) Delayed Health Benefits: PM2.5 Reductions: -​ Sustainable pathways (SPS) could lower PM2.5-related deaths by 1.18 million globally in 2040. -​ Achieved through emissions controls and air quality improvements. Food -​ Food accounts for 1/3 of global GHG emissions. -​ Red meat, dairy, and shrimp are top contributors (methane, deforestation, mangrove disruption). -​ Switching to a plant-based diet under SPS could prevent 5.86M deaths by 2040. -​ 50% from reduced dietary risks. -​ 50% from better weight management Active Transport -​ Active travel (walking/biking) in high-income countries is voluntary and influenced by: -​ Urbanization, infrastructure, traffic safety, and other risks. -​ SPA conditions could avoid ~1.15M deaths globally by 2040 (compared to CPS). -​ Largest health gains projected in the USA, South Africa, and the Immediate Health Benefits SLCPS: -​ Short-Lived Climate Pollutants (SLCPs): Air pollutants with shorter atmospheric lifespans than CO₂. -​ Examples: Black carbon, methane, tropospheric ozone, hydrofluorocarbons. -​ Responsible for 45% of current global warming. -​ Second-largest contributors to the greenhouse effect after CO₂. -​ SLCPs are associated with increased risk of cardiovascular & respiratory conditions, premature death, and decreased food security -​ Reductions in black carbon and methane emissions could save an overall 2.4 million lives by the year 2030 -​ 40% of the global population relies on solid fuels for cooking and heating. -​ Solid fuels cause 58% of global black carbon emissions. -​ Burning solid fuels releases PM2.5, leading to 4 million premature deaths annually from household air pollution. -​ Switching to clean cookstoves reduces pollutants and improves health. -​ Implementation cost: $4.7 billion annually (current investments 10%. Active commuting decreases:  -​ Cardiovascular disease risk by ~10%. -​ Type 2 diabetes risk by ~30%. -​ Cancer-related mortality by ~30% (for bike commuters). Climate Adaptation Adaptation in Human Systems: Adjustment to actual/expected climate impacts to mitigate harm or utilize benefits Mitigation vs. Adaptation Mitigation: Primary prevention; efforts to reduce climate change itself (e.g., renewable energy, electric cars). Adaptation: Secondary/tertiary prevention; interventions to build resilience to climate impacts. (ex: Improving water systems, increasing disaster research/surveillance, improving healthcare) Key Adaptation Infrastructure Thames Barrier (London): -​ Protects against flooding; operational since 1982, designed for use until 2070. -​ Safeguards 1.3 million people and £275 billion in assets Climate Adaptation Options Primary Prevention -​ Prevent the onset of health impacts in unaffected populations. -​ Example: Supply bed nets to populations at risk of malaria exposure. Secondary Prevention -​ Address early evidence of health impacts. -​ Example: Strengthen disease surveillance and respond to disease outbreaks. Tertiary Prevention -​ Reduce morbidity or mortality from existing health impacts. -​ Example: Improve diagnosis and treatment of malaria cases Adaptation Examples by Category Primary Prevention: NWT Permafrost Research: Study effects on highways in the Northwest Territories to improve infrastructure resilience (ongoing since 2019). Secondary Prevention: Kashechewan First Nation: Hazard mapping to understand and mitigate floods caused by ice jams (14 evacuations since 2004). Tertiary Prevention: Nanaimo Hospital Upgrades: Disaster-preparedness construction for extreme weather, including renewable energy measures and heat recovery systems. Global Inequalities in Responsibility OECD countries contributed 59% of all CO2 emissions since 1751. The 52 poorest countries emitted only 1%. Carbon footprint: Measures CO2 emissions associated with fossil fuel use OECD: Organisation for Economic Co- operation and Development; 37 member countries with market-based economies Responses to Climate Change Technological/Infrastructure (e.g., flood barriers, drought-resistant crops). Behavioral Change: Livelihood shifts, relocation, protecting homes/crops. Adaptation Indicators Types of Data: Demographic Data: Information about groups of people according to certain Attributes - Age, residence location. Health Data: Personal health statistics. Climate Data: Observed climate records taken at specific sites and times with particular instruments under a set of standard procedures (i.e., average temperatures) Vulnerability Data: How climate impacts the health certain populations differently from other populations (e.g., flood risk in low-income areas) Case Study: Toronto Cooling Stations for seniors: -​ Mapped density of cooling stations against senior population Vulnerability, location, and demographic. -​ Highlighted underserved areas (e.g., northwest/southwest Toronto). Maladaptation: -​ Actions that unintentionally increase risks of adverse climate-related outcomes. Can lead to: -​ Increased GHG emissions. -​ Shifted or heightened vulnerability to climate change. -​ More inequitable outcomes. -​ Reduced welfare (current or future). Often an unintended consequence. Possible Maladaptation Example: CCRIP Coastal Climate-Resilient Infrastructure Project (CCCRIP): Location: Coastal Southwest Bangladesh (frequent flooding and poverty). -​ Poverty statistics: 26.7% extremely poor, 14.7% undernourished. -​ Objective: Install raised areas and drainage systems to reduce flooding and retain residents and businesses. Short-Term Benefits: -​ Attracts new businesses. -​ Encourages population to stay. Long-Term Risks: -​ Rising sea levels by 2050 could threaten those who remain. -​ Debate: Whether improved infrastructure provides lasting resilience or if migration inland is a better solution