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4.1. The "Restoration" of the "Solomonic'' Dynasty The rulers of the "Solomonic" Dynasty claimed that they were descendants of the last king of Aksum and hence, they were legitimate to take over state power from the "illegitimate" rulers of the Zagwe dynasty. As the claim has no historical evidence,...

4.1. The "Restoration" of the "Solomonic'' Dynasty The rulers of the "Solomonic" Dynasty claimed that they were descendants of the last king of Aksum and hence, they were legitimate to take over state power from the "illegitimate" rulers of the Zagwe dynasty. As the claim has no historical evidence, the name "Restoration" is put in quotation mark. Similarly, the name "Solomonic" is placed in quotation marks because the claim of descent from King Solomon of Israel is legendary. The claim has been elaborated in the Kibre Negest ("Glory of Kings") that associated Ethiopia with the Judeo-Christian tradition. The Kibre Negest claims that Ethiopian ruling class descended from the line of Menilek I, son of the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon of Israel. As a result, Ethiopian monarchs from YikunoAmlak to Emperor Haile-Silassie I claimed descent from Menilek I. 4.2. Power Struggle, Consolidation, Territorial Expansion and Religious Processes 4.2.1. Succession Problem and the Establishment of a 'Royal Prison' of Amba Gishen Following the end of the reign of Yikuno-Amlak in 1285, a political instability caused by constant power struggles among his sons and grandsons for succession occurred. A letter written by Yegba-Tsion (r.1285-94) to the Sultan of Egypt and the Patriarch of Alexandria in 1290 reflected the existence of those struggles. The power struggle intensified during the reigns of Yegba-Tsion's five sons who reigned from 1294 to 1299. The succession problem seems to have been partly resolved in 1300 during the reign of Widim-Ra'ad (r. 1299-1314) following the establishment of a \'royal prison\' at Amba-Gishen located in present day southern Wollo where all male members of the royal family were confined until one among them was installed in power. Loyal soldiers to the reigning monarch guarded the royal prison. When the monarch died, court dignitaries would send an army to the royal prison to escort the designated successor and put him on the throne. This practice continued until Amba-Gishen was destroyed by Imam Ahmad Ibrahim Al-Ghazi\'s force in 1540. History of Ethiopia and the Horn Module (Hist.1102) 61 4.2.2. Consolidation and Territorial Expansion of the Christian Kingdom From 1270 until the establishment of Gondar in 1636, the medieval monarchs had no permanent capital. Initially, the center of the "restored" dynasty was in medieval Amhara (today's South Wollo) around Lake Haiq. However, it gradually shifted southward to the districts of Menz, Tegulet, Bulga, and finally to the regions dominated by the great height of the Yerer, Entoto, Menagesha, Wachacha, Furi and Zequalla mountains. After coming to power, Yikuno-Amlak embarked on consolidating his authority throughout the empire. In this regard, he quickly subdued Ifat, the Muslim center adjacent to Shewa. Yet, until the coming of Amde-Tsion (r.1314-44), the center and the territorial limit of the Christian Kingdom was mainly in present day Tigray, Lasta, medieval Amhara and Shewa. Amde-Tsion was the first \"Solomonic\" King, who embarked on a policy of a wider and rapid territorial expansion. His main motives of expansion were economic and political i.e. to control the trade routes and seize territories. The Christian Kingdom controlled extensive territories during the reign of Emperor Amde-Tsion. The period also witnessed the expansion of trade leading to the flow of commodities to the coast following the major routes. In the process of consolidating his power, Amde-Tsion subdued rebellions in an attempt to end centrifugal tendencies, which threatened the unity of the Christian Kingdom. In the process, he expanded his territory into Agaw (Awi) of Gojjam around 1323/4; Bizamo and Damot in 1316/7; Bete-Israel (located between Dambiya and Tekeze River) around 1332; and the Red Sea Coast. To consolidate the control of the Christian state over the provinces of the north extending to the coastal areas of Massawa, Amde-Tsion gave Enderta (in today's northeastern Tigray) to his wife Bilen-Saba. Amde-Tsion\'s army faced stiff resistance from among Ifat and Shewa, which might have cooperated with the rebellious army at Enderta, led by Yibeka-Igzi in 1320s. However, Bahr-Sagad, the son of Amde-Tsion, became the governor of Tigray. In 1325, Amde-Tsion campaigned to today's Eritrean region. After controlling the whole region, he appointed a governor with a title of Ma\'ekale-Bahir, which later on changed to Bahire-Negash. In the southeast, Muslim sultanates paid tributes to the Christian Kingdom. In the south, Gurage speaking areas and a few of the Omotic kingdoms like Wolayta and Gamo were History of Ethiopia and the Horn Module (Hist.1102) 62 brought under the influence of the Christian state. Amde-Tsion was in full control of all the trade routes and sources of trade of the Ethiopian region in the early 1330s. The consolidation and territorial expansion of the Christian Kingdom continued during the successors of Amde-Tsion. Map 3: The Christian Kingdom during the Reign of Emperor Amde-Tsion Source: Taddesse Tamrat, Church and State in Ethiopia, p. 133. History of Ethiopia and the Horn Module (Hist.1102) 63 4.2.3. Evangelization, Religious Movements, and Religious Reforms of Zara-Yaqob I. Evangelization Christianity had a long history of expansion. Churches and their believers had been in existence long before expansion of the Christian Kingdom in various parts of the Horn of Africa. For instance, in Shewa there were early Christians who maintained contacts with their distant relatives in Northern part of Ethiopia. Those early Christians played an important role in the spread of Christianity in several areas. In the thirteenth century, Eyesus-Mo\'a opened new opportunities of learning for Christians who lived in the central part of Ethiopia and later evangelized the newly incorporated areas where the influence of Christianity had either been non−existent or minimal. The territorial expansion carried out by Amde−Tsion during the medieval period set an addition momentum for the spread of Christianity. Abune Tekle-Haymanot (thirteenth century) played a key role in reviving Christianity in Shewa, which was followed by the evangelization of areas in southern Ethiopia including medieval Damot. He baptized and converted Motalami to Christianity. The clergy, under the direction of the bishop in Ethiopia, Yaqob, spread Christianity to different areas of Shewa such as Kil\'at, Tsilalish, Merhabite, Wereb, Moret and Wegda, and Fatagar, Damot, Waj and Enarya. II. Religious Movements A. The Ewostatewos Movement Monasticism became a dominant practice in Ethiopian Orthodox Church in the midthirteenth century. The period witnessed development of monasticism and religious movements of which the major one was the Ewostatewos movement, named after the founder. Ewostatewos established his own monastic community in Sara\'e (in present day Eritrea). There, he was joined by many students and taught until about 1337. Among his teachings was the strict observance of Sabbath. When he was opposed by an organized religious rival group of the clergy in Sera\'e, he fled the country to Egypt. He faced the same opposition in Cairo by Ethiopian pilgrims. After Ewostatewos left Ethiopia, the movement was weakned although his followers led by Abba Absad tried their best to maintain its momentum. The movement revived when some of History of Ethiopia and the Horn Module (Hist.1102) 64 his followers such as Bekimos, Merkoryewos and Gebre--Iyasus returned home from Armenia. The followers of Ewostatewos soon became active and dispersed to different monasteries in northern Ethiopia. The movement spread to areas like Enfraz, northern Tigray, and Hamessen. The King and the Abun opposed the movement. Hence, the antiEwostatewos group led by the Abbot of the Hayq Monastery called Aqabe-Se'at SereqeBirhan was supported by the Abun and the monarch. The monarch imprisoned some of the Ewostatians owing to the fact that he feared that dispute in the church could divide his kingdom. The clergy expelled Ewostatians from their church services; some of the Ewostatians were forced to withdraw and settle in peripheral areas while some of them sustained their movement in monasteries like Debre- Bizen, Debre-San, etc. B. Deqiqe Estifanos/ the Estifanosites The Estifanosites were a movement within Ethiopian monasticism, called so after their founder and spiritual leader Abba Estifanos. The movement rose to prominence in the fifteenth century and continued until the sixteenth century, when it was formally reconciled with the main body of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. The head of the movement, Abba Estifanos, was born in Agame at the end of the fourteenth century. He established a rigid monastic organization, which emphasized poverty, absolute self-subsistence, equality and autonomy from secular authorities. His adversaries in the monastic circles attempted to discredit him, but the movement gained followers in various monastic communities. When summoned to the royal court, Estifanos was initially able to convince the emperor (probably Atse Takla Maryam, r. 1430-33) that he posed no threat to royal power or the unity of the Church. Later, however, he collided with Zara-Yaqob. Estifanos appears to have disapproved of the Emperor's religion initiatives, rejected royal supremacy and authority in spiritual matters and refused to participate in court judiciary procedures. Zara-Yacob took very harsh measures against the Estifanosites allegedly for their opposition of the veneration of St. Mary. Naod appears to have been more favorably inclined towards the Estifanosites and to have been instrumental in their reintegration into the EOC during the period of Metropolitan Abune Yeshaq. For their part, Estifanosites appear to have softened their position; the History of Ethiopia and the Horn Module (Hist.1102) 65 excommunication was lifted by the Metropolitan. Despite the importance of the Estifanosites movement for the history of Ethiopia, as yet we have neither a comprehensive critical history of its background and development, nor a clear idea of its real geographical scale, historical significance and influence. III. The Religious Reforms of Emperor Zara-Yaqob Emperor Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-68) took several measures to stabilize and consolidate the Orthodox Church. First, he settled the conflict among the Ethiopian clergy in order to create an amicable church-state relationship. In this regard, he made peace with the House of Ewostatewos by reviving Sabbath in the Ethiopian church and the Ewostatian agreed to receive Holy orders from the Ethiopian prelates. Further, he urged the clergy to preach Christianity in remote areas. Besides, he ordered the people to observe fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays and get Father Confessors. Lack of sufficient religious books was another problem. Thus, the king encouraged the establishment of a library in every church. This was followed by revival of religious literature. He himself wrote some books like Metsafe-Birhan, Metsafe-Me'lad, MetsafeSillasie, Metsafe-te\'aqebo Mister,etc. In addition, during his reign, some parts of Te'amreMaryam were translated from Arabic to Geez. 4.3. Political and Socio-Economic Dynamics in Muslim Sultanates A number of strong sultanates had emerged since the fourteenth century. Trade was one of the major factors that resulted in the rise and development of those sates. Trade served not only as a major source of livelihood but also acted as a major agent that resulted in the formation of Muslm Sultanes and remained a major source of conflict between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim sultanates. One of the strong Muslim sultanates that emerged along trade routes and became a center of resistance against the Christian Kingdom until the second half of the sixteenth century was the Sultanate of Adal. 4.3.1. The Rise of Adal After its establishment, Ifat conducted a series of campaigns against its neighbouring sultanates thereby extending its hegemony over these areas. It also resisted the expansion of History of Ethiopia and the Horn Module (Hist.1102) 66 the Christian Kingdom. However, one branch of the Walasma family, which realized that Ifat was becoming an easy target to the Christian Kingdom due to its location, moved further to the southeastern lowlands and established new and vigorous Muslim Sultanate of Adal in the highland districts around Harar in 1367. The first center of this extended Walasma Dynasty was at a place called Dakar, a place located to the southeast of Harar. The Walasma family consolidated its power in the new center, and began another phase of military campaigns against the frontiers of the Christian Kingdom. The center of Adal in 1520 changed to the city of Harar and after the defeat of Imam Ahmed; a growing threat from a new force-the Oromo forced the sultanate to change its capital to Awsa in 1576/7, to the present Afar region. 4.3.2. Trade and the Expansion of Islam Islam spread into the central and southwestern parts of the Ethiopian region through Muslim merchants and preachers. Trade served as channel for the expansion of Islam in the Muslim Sultanates while at the same time it formed the base of the economy of those states. The most known Muslim Sultanates during this period were Ifat (1285-1415) and Adal (1415-1577). The main trade outlet shifted to Zeila and the old city-states of Mogadishu, Brava, and Merca were used as ports for their hinterland. In the meantime, for the trade in the northeast, Massawa served as an outlet. With the revival of trade, different towns and trade centers emerged along the route from Zeila to the interior. Travelers\' accounts and chronicles referred to these towns and ruins of mosques and residences mark the existence of market centers, which followed and served the trade coasts. The ruins that mark the landscape around Jigjiga and the highlands of Harar and Charchar attest to the market towns that served the Zeila route. These include Weez-Gebeya in western Shewa/famous market on the Fatagar-Dawaro-Harar route, Suq-Wayzaro in old Damot, Suq-Amaja and the very famous market center Gandabalo on the Ifat-Awsa route. Gandabalo was largely inhabited by Muslim and Christian merchants serving the kings and sultans as agents. Other big market towns include the ones that linked medieval Amhara with Awsa, called Wasel near what is today Ware-Illu, Qorqora/Qoreta (north of Waldiya) and Mandalay in History of Ethiopia and the Horn Module (Hist.1102) 67 southern Tigray. The towns of Dabarwa, the seat of the Bahre-Negash ("Lord of the Sea"), and Asmara were the two important entrepots of caravans in the hinterland of Massawa. Muslim states had significant control over trade routes that passed through Zeila due to their geographical proximity, although contested by "Solomonic" Kingdom especially after its revival and consolidation. Map 4: Trade Routes and Muslim Sultanates in Medieval Ethiopia Source: Bahru Zewde (Compiled), A Short History of Ethiopia and the Horn, p. 39. 4.4. Rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates Zeila was the main outlet to the sea during the medieval period. The ambition to control this trade route and commodities that passed through Zeila led to rivalry between the "Solomonic" rulers and the Sultanate of Ifat. The first recorded conflict between the Christian Kingdom and Ifat took place in 1328 when the Muslim Sultanates organized their History of Ethiopia and the Horn Module (Hist.1102) 68 armies to take military action against the Christian Kingdom. The Sultan of Ifat, Haqaddin I stopped merchants belonging to the Christian King, Amde-Tsion, confiscating the goods, capturing, and imprisoning the king\'s agent, Ti'iyintay returning from Cairo. These actions forced Amde-Tsion to wage a campaign against Haqaddin I; defeated and took him prisoner and eventually replaced him by his brother Sabradin. Both Ifat and Fatagar came under Sabradin. Ifat was defeated and Sabradin was captured during his retreat. As a result, Ifat, Fatagar and Dawaro were incorporated. Amde-Tsion required from them annual tributes and freedom of movement for all caravans through Zeila. Following the decline of Ifat, other Muslim Sultanates like Sharkha, Bali, Dara, and Arbabani were also seriously weakened. It was owing to these developments that some members of the Walasma moved their seat of power further east to Adal, from where they continued their struggle. To check their attacks on the highlands, the successors of Emperor Amde-Tsion conducted repeated campaigns into the lowlands. In 1376, Haqadin II came to power and refused to pay tribute and rebelled against Neway-Maryam (r. 1371-80), the son of Amde-Tsion. However, he died fighting in 1386. Similarly, the successor of Haqadin II, Sa'd ad-Din II (c. 1386-1402) gained initial success until king Dawit I (r. 1380-1412) in 1402/3 extended his expansion and defeated him. Sa'd ad-Din II became refuge in Zeila until King Yishaq (r.1413-30) killed him in 1415. Since then the area was called \"the land of Sad ad-Din.\" Following the death of Sa'd ad-Din and loss of Zeila to Christian Kings, the Muslim sultanates declined in power. Sa'd ad-Din's sons who took refuge in Yemen came back to succeed their father. Yet, Adal continued to challenge the Christian state and were successful in killing Tewodros (1412-13) and Yeshaq. This led to intense struggle for predominance. During the mid-fifteenth century, Emperor Zara Yaqob gained some access to the Red Sea. In 1445, Zara Yaqob defeated Sultan Ahmed Badlay at the battle of Yeguba. As a result, the son and successor of Ahmed Badlay, Mohammed Ahmed (r.1445-71) sent a message of submission to Ba'ede Mariam (r. 1468-78) to remain vassal of the Christian Kings. On the death of Mohammed, however, Adal was still strong and continued its struggle. Hence, the History of Ethiopia and the Horn Module (Hist.1102) 69 reigning monarch, Ba'ede-Mariam campaigned against Adal. Despite initial successes, the army of Ba\'ede-Mariam lost the battle in 1474. The successors of Ba\'ede-Mariam proved weak in their dealings with the rulers of Muslim Sultanates. At the same time, leaders of the Muslim Sultanate sought to resolve the problem peacefully. As a result, Mohammad ibn Azhar ad-Din (1488-1518) attempted to smoothen relations with the Christian Kingdom. However, among the various Sultans of the Muslim sultanates, Emir Mahfuz carried out some effective military campaigns into the highlands. In 1517 Emir Mahfuz died fighting against Emperor Lebne-Dengel\'s (r. 1508-40) force and his son-in-law, Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, popularly known as Ahmed Gragn or the \"left-handed\" took over the leadership. Apart from the hostile relations, there were wider socio-economic and cultural interactions between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim principalities. As in earlier periods, trade continued to be the major channel of social integration. Also, it had long been the source of friendship, interaction, interdependence, and conflict among the states of the region. The long distance trade and local markets served as core areas of social ties. Relatively, the difference in ecology of the Muslim sultanates and the Christian Kingdom created economic interdependence, which in due course strengthened socio-economic bondage. Merchants of the two regions often moved from the highlands to the coast and vice versa. It was through such caravan merchants that the social links were strengthened and religions spread. These interactions and interdependence in economic, social, cultural and political spheres lay the foundation for modern Ethiopia. Beside the above dusscused socio-cultural and economic interactionas, the period witnessed the flourishing of Geez literature as is evident from the works of Abba Giorgis Ze-Gasicha and others and philosophies epitomzed by Zara-Ya\'iqob (not to be confused with the king). On the Muslim side, literature had developed including the works of Arab writers such as Ibn Fadil al Umari, Ibn Khaldun and others. History of Ethiopia and the Horn Module (Hist.1102) 70 4.5. External Relations 4.5.1. Relations with Egypt From the late thirteenth century onwards, the Christian Kingdom continued to maintain relations with Egypt, which was mainly religious in character. In 1272, Yekuno-Amlak sent an emissary to Egypt's Sultan, Baybars, requesting an Abun from the Coptic Church. Furthermore, both Egypt and Ethiopia continued to act as protectors of religious minorities in their respective domain. Egypt also wanted to ensure secure flow of the Nile (the Abay River) that originated from Ethiopia. In the early fourteenth century, Mohammed ibn Qala'un persecuted the Copts and destroyed their churches in Cairo. In response, Amde-Tsion demanded the restoration of the churches and warned that failure to do so would result in the diversion of the Nile waters. Patriarch Marqos (1348- 63) sent a message to Sayfa-Arad (r.1344-71), revealing his imprisonment by the then Egyptian Sultan. Sayfa-Arad is said to have mobilized a huge army against Egypt after which the Sultan released the patriarch and sent a delegation to the King. Besides, Patriarch Matewos (1328-1408) delegated by the Sultan, established harmonious relations between King Dawit and Egypt. The Sultan is said to have sent a piece of the \"True Cross\" and in return, Dawitis said to have given a number of religious paintings to the Sultan. In 1437/8, Zara-Yaqob wrote a friendly letter to Sultan Barsbay requesting the protection of Christians in Egypt. Three years later, however, Patriarch Yohannes XI wrote Zara-Yaqob a letter stating the demolition of the famous church of Mitmaq (Debre-Mitmaq). Then ZaraYaqob sent an envoy to Sultan Jaqmaq (1438-53) with a strongly worded letter. In reply to this message, Jaqmaq sent an envoy to Ethiopia, with complimentary gifts to the King but rejected the reconstruction of the church. 4.5.2. Relations with Christian Europe As with the Muslim Arab world, the Christian Kingdom maintained relations with Christian Europe. During the medieval period, contacts between the two regions were strongly influenced by the legend of "Prester John".This was followed by sustained relations in subsequent decades. For example, it is stated that Ethiopian delegation was in attendance of History of Ethiopia and the Horn Module (Hist.1102) 71 Gian Galeazzo Visconti's coronation in Milan in 1395. In 1418, three Ethiopians attended the Council of Constance. In another report, message from an Ethiopian monarch, Amde-Tsion was presented to King Phillip of France in 1332. The earliest known message to Ethiopia from a European monarch is the letter of King Henry IV of England dated 1400 A.D. and addressed to "Prester John",the purported king of the Christian Kingdom. The identification of the King with "Prester John" was firmly established in the fourteenth century. They even thought that it was possible to liberate Jerusalem with the help of this King. Hence, during the reign of King Dawit, the leaders of Rome, Constantinople, Syria, Armenia and Egypt sent letters to the king in which they asked for support. King Dawit received some Italian craftsmen consisting mainly of Florentines. In 1402, King Dawit sent his first delegation to Europe led by a Florentine man called Antonio Bartoli. Alphonso de Paiva V of Aragon received a delegation from Yishaq in the city of Valentia, in 1427. Yishaq's delegation to Europe was to ask for more artisans and military experts. The embassy of the Duke of Berry consisting craftsmen, Neapolitan Pietro, a Spaniard and a Frenchman reached Ethiopia during the reign of Yishaq. In 1450 a Sicilian Pietro Rombulo, who had been in Ethiopia since the last years of Dawit\'s reign and who had previously carried out a successful trade mission to India on behalf of the King, was now sent to Europe as Zara-Yaqob's ambassador. An Ethiopian priest, FikreMariam and two other individuals accompanied him. The mission was to Alphonso of Aragon (also ruled as king of Naples and Sicily). King Zara-Yaqob sent delegates to Alphonso to get political, military, and technical assistance. Alphonso wrote a letter to ZaraYaqob and informed him that he has sent him artisans and masons he requested. The most authentic pieces of evidence on Ethio-Europe links are the maps of Egyptus Novelo (c. 1454) and Fra Mauro\'s Mappomondo (1460) which clearly depicted many places and peoples. Venetian Gregorio or Hieronion Bicini visited Ethiopia in 1482. Pedros da Covilhao/Peter de Covilham arrived at the court of Eskindir (1478-1494) in 1493. History of Ethiopia and the Horn Module (Hist.1102) 72 The beginning and continued rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates in the fifteenth century strengthened the relation between the Christian Kingdom and Christian Europe. Queen Elleni (the daughter of Hadiya Garad and married to King Zara Yaeqob) played an important role in the strengthening of these relations. She had foreseen the threat that came from the Ottoman Turkish who showed a clear interest to support the Muslim Sultanates. She also had foreseen the possibility of consolidating relations with and getting support from Portugal that was against the Turks. In 1508, Portugal sent an envoy to act as an ambassador to Christian Ethiopia. Around 1512, Queen Elleni, the mother and regent of Lebne-Dengel sent an Armenian called Mathew to Portugal. The Portuguese court doubted his authenticity and was received coldly. The Portuguese Embassy led by Rodrigo di Lima, Duwarto Galliba and Francisco Alvarez reached Ethiopia in 1520 and remained for six years. The objective was to establish a naval port against the expanding Turkish power in Red Sea Area. The mission was not successful.