Ethiopian History - Politics, Economy & Society - PDF

UNIT FOUR POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY FROM THE LATE THIRTEENTH TO THE BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURIES 4.1. The “Restoration” of the “Solomonid» Dynasty o Overthrow of the Zagwe Dynasty:  Zagwe dynasty overthrown in 1270 by Yekunno-Amlak.  Yekunno-Amlak, a contender from Amhara,...

UNIT FOUR POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY FROM THE LATE THIRTEENTH TO THE BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURIES 4.1. The “Restoration” of the “Solomonid» Dynasty o Overthrow of the Zagwe Dynasty:  Zagwe dynasty overthrown in 1270 by Yekunno-Amlak.  Yekunno-Amlak, a contender from Amhara, launched military campaigns from Lasta to Gayint, defeating the last Zagwe king, Yetbarek.  Yekunno-Amlak's growing power base was in Shewa. o Ideological Narrative:  The Zagwe were depicted as "usurpers" of the Aksumite royal throne despite their promotion of Christianity.  The Kibre Negest ("The Glory of the Kings") justified the "Solomonid" rule, tracing Ethiopian rulers' lineage to King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba.  The "restoration" narrative linked Ethiopia to the Judeo-Christian tradition and delegitimized the Zagwe dynasty. 4.2. Internal Political Conflict The formative years of the Solomonids were characterized by two challenges: problem in succession and regulating Christian-Muslim relations in Ethiopia. o Challenges in Succession:  No consistent system for succession led to crises after the deaths of rulers like Yekunno- Amlak (1285) and his son and successor Yegba-Tsion (r. 1285-94).  Intrigues arose due to polygamy and political marriages among royal and provincial nobility. o Royal Prison at Amba Gishen:  Established by Emperor Widim-Ra’ad (r. 1299-1314) in Wollo.  Functioned as a fortress to confine royal descendants to prevent succession conflicts.  Became a residence for 590 royal descendants by the 15th century.  Fell to Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi’s army in 1540. 4.3. Power Consolidation and Spatial Extension o Territorial Context at the Start of Solomonid Rule:  By 1270, the Christian kingdom encompassed parts of Eritrea, northern, northwestern, and central Ethiopia.  No control over eastern Shewa, dominated by Muslim states like Ifat and Hadiya.  Other entities included the Kingdom of the Ethiopian Jews, Gojjam, Damot, and coastal Muslim principalities. o Reign of Amde-Tsion (r. 1314-1344):  Focused on consolidating power in Christian provinces and expanding the kingdom.  Suppressed revolts, especially in Enderta in the north, and reorganized rebellious regions into smaller units governed by trusted officials backed by imperial garrisons.  Territorial Expansion:  Conquered Damot (west of the Awash River) and Hadiya (south of the Awash) in 1316-17.  Extended influence to Gibe, Gojeb, and Omo River basins, as well as Lake Tana’s northern area.  Brought Muslim principalities (Ifat, Dawaro, Sharkha, Bali) under tribute-paying vassalage.  Controlled trade routes and strengthened Christian military positions.  Arab historian Ibn Fadil al-Umari described Amde-Tsion as ruling “99 kings” and he makes up the hundredth.  Amde-Tsion is credited for shaping and solidifying the medieval Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia.  Motivations for Expansion:  Economic: Gain control over lucrative trade routes dominated by Muslims.  Territorial: Seize new lands for the kingdom.  The Solomonids set their eye on terrain and trade.  Led to subjugation of indigenous peoples and blending of linguistic, religious, and cultural features. 4.4. Administration and Military Organization of the Ethiopian Christian Kingdom 4.4.1. Administration o Structure of the Kingdom:  The kingdom was not a unified state but a loose confederation of many regions with diverse cultures, religions, and languages.  Military campaigns were often used to maintain control o Hybrid Administrative System: The kingdom was divided into three circles:  Core Provinces (innermost circle):  Directly controlled by the emperor.  Strong centralized administration.  Tributary Territories (largest part):  Local rulers retained autonomy if they submitted, paid tribute, and fulfilled obligations.  These areas were heavily garrisoned by the chewa (military regiments).  Outer Territories:  Beyond direct control of emperor but considered as integral part.  Symbolic loyalty to the emperor but mostly autonomous.  Local rulers paid tribute, and refusal led to raids. o Challenges in Administration:  Centralized administration was never fully achieved.  Governance became harder as the kingdom expanded. o Reforms by Emperor Zara Yaqob (r. 1434-1468): Strengthened central authority by:  Creating a body of state officials.  Reorganizing court officials and revenue systems.  Bolstering the army.  Involving the church in reforms. Results:   Zara Yaqob’s radical reforms united rival factions against him.  His reforms ultimately failed. 4.4.2. Military Organization o Types of Army Regiments:  Regular Troops of the emperor.  Regular troops of Individual Military Leaders.  Specially mobilized territorial troops.  Irregular Troops. Core of the Army – Chewa Regiments.  Other terms used to describe units or armies included serawit, hara (‘army’), chefra (‘body of troops’).  These regiments were organized based on region of origin and identity, and relied on provisions supplied by the peasantry.  Military regiments called chewa formed the backbone of the army.  Composition:  Based on regions of origin.  Included diverse ethnic and religious groups.  Recruited from conquered peoples known for their martial skills. o Yekunno-Amlak Military Organization: The officers were held titles like azmach, dejjazmach, ras, fitawrari, balambaras, azazh and basha.  Ras: larger armies (up to 40,000)  Dejjazmach/fitawrari: mid sized (up to 10,000)  Other officers: small group (2000-5000) o Military Organization Under Amde-Tsion: Introduced three types of units:  Territorial Forces: Named after provinces (e.g., Amhara, Shewa, Gojjam).   Elite Units: Special names symbolizing military strength. e.g., Tekula (‘Jackal’), Qeste neheb (‘arrow of a bee’), and Korem (‘cavalry’).  Weapon-Specific Units: Soldiers grouped by the weapons they carried. e.g., Tsewareyane warmat (‘carriers of spears’), Tsewaryane warmat abbiyan (‘carriers of large spears’), Tsewareyane asayeft (‘carriers of swords’). o Innovations Under Zara-Yaqob:  Reorganized the chewa regiments into a mobile force.  Strengthened his bodyguards.  Adopted new technologies and warfare methods from Mamluk Egypt and Europe. o Army Size Under Emperor Lebne-Dengel (r. 1508-1540): Shihab al-Din described it “as numerous as locusts” (16,000 cavalry, 200,000 infantry in 1529). 4.4.3. Temporal Administrative and Military Decline o Decline of Power: Began in the last 30 years of the 15th century. Reasons for decline:  Internal Political Rift:  Began at the end of Zara Yakob’s reign.  Rivalries weakened the monarchy and the economy.  Lords defected to Muslim forces.  Failure of National Integration:  Cultural and political integration of conquered regions failed.  Zara Yaqob’s attempts at religious nationalism alienated subjects.  o Effects of Decline:  Law and order collapsed.  Dynastic instability with short reigns of inexperienced rulers.  Reduced revenue flow as local rulers retained more taxes due to weaker imperial garrisons. 4.5. Economic Bases of the Kingdom o Main Sources of Economic Power: Control over land, labor, and trade routes. o Land as a Cornerstone: Land ownership allowed rulers to:  Support farming, animal husbandry, and mining (e.g., copper, iron, gold, silver).  Generate revenue to maintain armies.  Monarchs allocated land (fiefs) to followers in exchange for military service.  Tribute from dependent regions was a major source of wealth.  Failure to pay tribute was punished harshly (disgrace, arrest, or execution). o Control Over Trade: Conquered Muslim territories along the eastern frontiers:  Gained access to profitable trade routes.  Levied taxes on imports and exports.  Organized caravans led by royal representatives to oversee trade. 4.6. Cooperation, Competition, and Conflict Between Christian and Muslim Powers By the end of 13th century, powerful Muslim states emerged from thriving trade.  Key sultanates: Shewa, Ifat, Fatagar, Dawaro, Hadiya, Bale, and Adal.  o Relationship Between Ifat and Adal:  Ifat initially ruled Adal:  Adal was a small state south of Ifat.  Ifat conquered Adal in 1288 but Adal regained independence during conflicts with Amde- Tsion.  Reversal of Roles:  In 1415, King Yishaq of the Christian kingdom captured Zeila, killed Ifat's ruler (Sadaddin Abu I-Barakat Muhammed b. Ahmed), and forced the Walasma family to flee to Yemen.  Upon returning, the Walasma rulers became Sultans of Adal, not Ifat.  Adal became the stronger state, using its new base Dakar (east of Harar) to launch attacks on the Christian kingdom. o Cooperation Between Christian and Muslim States:  When peaceful, cooperation was based on:  Tributary System: Muslim states kept their rulers but paid tribute and ensured safe trade routes.  Mutual Benefits: Securing trade routes helped both parties economically. o Causes of Conflicts:  Economic and Political Rivalry:  Struggles for dominance over trade and tribute payments led to armed confrontations.  Refusal to pay tribute or blockades of trade routes often triggered wars. o Key Conflicts:  Yekunno-Amlak: Reduced Ifat to a tributary state.  Amde-Tsion (14th Century):  Launched campaigns against Ifat, Hadiya, Fatagar, and Dawaro.  Triggered by events like:  Ifat attacking the Christian kingdom in 1328 led by Haqaddin I.  Arrest of a Christian messenger.  Amde-Tsion crushed planned attacks of Ifat’s Sultan Sabreddin, Dawaro’s ruler Haydara and Hadya’s king Amano in 1332.  Later Campaigns:  Neway Maryam fought Adal’s Sultan Haqaddin II for refusing tribute.  Dawit II, Tewodros I, and Yeshaq continued conflicts with Adal leaders.  Battle of Yeguba (1445): Triggered by Adal king Ahmed Badlay refusing tribute to Emperor Zara-Yaqob. Peaceful relations resumed when Mohammed Ahmed, the son and successor of Ahmed Badlay, sent the required tribute to Emperor Ba'ede Mariam.  Emir Mahfuz fought Lebne Dengel but ended up in failure and resulted in his death in 1517. o Religious vs. Economic Motives:  While religion (Christian vs. Muslim) played a role:  The main cause was economic and political rivalry.  Leaders used religion to mobilize troops (e.g., crusades or jihad), but conflicts were more about dominance than faith. 4.7. Interaction and Integration of Peoples and Cultures Key Patterns in Ethiopia’s Multi-Ethnic Society 1. Continuous Interaction: Different ethnic groups interacted regularly. 2. Shared Culture: Common cultural traits emerged across Ethiopia. 3. Absorption of Newcomers: Ethiopia integrated new peoples and cultures over time. 4.7.1 Expansion of the Christian Kingdom o Timeframe: 14th–15th centuries. o Impact: 1. Attracted highland communities to join the Christian Kingdom. 2. Inspired outlying groups with its grandeur and religion. o Legends & Influence:  Kings of Kafa and Kambata linked to Solomon and Sheba.  Emperor Zara-Yaqob remembered as a golden age in Sidama.  Use of Amharic terms in other kingdoms.  (e.g., "awaj" for proclamation, “amakari” for councilor, “negarit” for royal drum, “debab” for royal umbrella).  4.7.2 Population Movements o Reasons: Search for land, trade, escape famine, raids, pilgrimages. o Examples:  Amhara migrated south; Wolayta dynasty linked to Tigrean origins.  Kingdom of Dawuro is believed to have been established by refuges from Dawaro.  Gurage found in Gondar.  Kafa nobles descended from Agew immigrants.  Muslims of Shewa and Gurage traced roots to Tigray. o Result: Strengthened ties among diverse ethnic groups. 4.7.3 Roving Court o Details:  Mobile royal camps replaced permanent capitals after Adafa (capital of Zagwe Dynasty).  Key regions: Ifat, Amhara, Shewa, Dawaro, Fatagar. o Functions:  Assert authority, maintain order, and deter raids.  Encouraged cultural exchange as a hub of trade and interactions. 4.7.4 Military Garrisons o Role:  Chewa regiments settled in conquered regions.  Soldiers intermarried with locals, promoting cultural exchange. o Impact:  Spread Christianity, Amharic language, and social systems.  Strengthened kingdom’s presence and unity. 4.7.5 Warfare o Reasons for Conflict:  Cattle raids, control over trade routes, display of power. o Result:  Forced interactions and mixing of displaced groups. 4.7.6 Market Centers o Role:  Weekly local markets and regional centers became meeting points.  Promoted trade and cultural exchange. o Key Markets:  Historical hubs like Dabarwa (Eritrea) and Jigjiga (Harar).  Gandabalo (eastern Shewa) fostered Muslim-Christian interaction.  4.7.7 Ethiopian Orthodox Church o Integration through Faith:  United people across diverse regions.  Evangelized new areas after territorial expansions. o Monastic Networks:  Led by figures like Iyesus Mo’a and Tekle-Haymanot, promoting Christianity. o Challenges:  Emperor Zara-Yaqob’s reforms to purify Christianity clashed with traditional practices.  Christianity merged with local traditions, forming a syncretic belief system. 4.7.8 Islam o Role:  United diverse groups under the Islamic faith.  Ethiopia celebrated as a sanctuary in Islamic tradition (e.g., Al-Najāshi). o Spread:  Preached by Sufi sheikhs and traders.  Flourished in Harar and Wollo with Arabic and local literature. o Syncretism:  Integrated local customs with Islamic teachings, promoting harmony with Christianity. 4.8. External Relations 4.8.1. Relations with Egypt o Yekunno-Amlak and Egypt:  In 1272, Yekunno-Amlak sent a request to Sultan Baybars of Egypt for an abun (head of the Ethiopian Church) from the Coptic Church.  Ethiopia and Egypt also acted as protectors of religious minorities in their territories. o Key Incidents:  Early 14th century: Egyptian ruler Mohammed ibn Qala'un persecuted Copts and destroyed churches in Cairo.  Emperor Amde-Tsion warned Egypt that failure to restore these churches could lead to the diversion of the Nile waters.  Sayfa-Arad mobilized an army to pressure Egypt after Patriarch Marqos was imprisoned. This led to the patriarch's release and improved relations. o Exchanges:  Patriarch Matewos fostered harmony between Dawit II and Egypt.  Dawit II received a piece of the "True Cross" from Egypt and gifted religious paintings in return.  o Zara-Yaqob's Diplomacy:  Sent a friendly letter to Sultan Barsbay in 1437/8 requesting protection for Egyptian Christians.  In 1440, Patriarch Yohannes XI wrote Zara-Yaqob a letter stating the demolition of the famous church of Debre-Mitmaq.  He protested against the demolition and sent a stern letter to Sultan Jaqmaq. In reply to this, Jaqmaq sent complimentary gifts but refused the reconstruction of the church. 4.8.2. Relations with Christian Europe o Early Contacts:  Amde-Tsion sent a message to King Philip of France in 1332.  Ethiopian representatives attended European events, including Gian Galeazzo Visconti's coronation in Milan (1395). o Notable Exchanges:  The earliest known message to Ethiopia was in 1400, King Henry IV of England wrote to Ethiopia, addressing the emperor as "Prester John."  Emperor Dawit II welcomed Florentine craftsmen and sent a delegation led by Florentine man, Antonio Bartoli to Europe in 1402. o Religious and Political Engagements:  3 Ethiopian delegates attended the Catholic Church's ecumenical council held in diocese of Constance, in present day Germany (1414-1418).  Emperor Yishaq sent delegations to Alphonso de Paiva V of Aragon (today’s Spain) for artisans and technical help.  Charles, the Duke of Berry, sent delegation (embassy) consisting of 3 craftsmen:  Pietro, a Neapolitan (from Naples, Italy).  A Spaniard.  A Frenchman. o Zara-Yaqob's Relations with Europe:  Sent ambassadors like Pietro Rombulo and Ethiopian priest Fikre-Mariam to European leaders, requesting artisans and military aid in 1450.  Received responses from European rulers like Alphonso of Aragon, who provided craftsmen. o Geographic Recognition: Ethiopian-European connections are reflected in detailed maps like Egyptus Novelo (1454) and Fra Mauro's Mappamondo (1460). o Queen Elleni's Diplomacy:  Queen Elleni, anticipating Ottoman threats, sent an Armenian envoy, Mathew, to Portugal around 1512.  A Portuguese embassy led by Rodrigo di Lima, Duwarto Galliba and Franciso Alvarez arrived in Ethiopia in 1520 to counter Turkish influence but failed to establish a naval port. UNIT FIVE POLITICS, ECONOMY, AND SOCIAL PROCESSES FROM THE EARLY SIXTEENTH TO THE END OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES 5.1 Conflict Between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal, and the Aftermath The first half of the 16th century was a turbulent period in Ethiopian and Horn of Africa history. o Major events: 1. Wars between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal. 2. Oromo population movement. 3. Jesuit interlude. o Root Causes of Conflict:  Control of the trade route through Zeila and the collection of tribute.  Environmental pressures (e.g., overgrazing and population growth) leading Muslim pastoralists to seek better land in the Christian highlands.  Religious motives: Imam Ahmed rallied Muslims to expand territory and fight for salvation. Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi ("Gragn"):  Born in Hubat (1506), he begins his military career as soldier in service of Garad Abun ibn Adash.  Garad Abun was killed in 1525 by Abu Bakr.  Imam Ahmed rose to lead Adal after defeating Sultan Abu Bakr in 1527.  Unified Afar, Somali, Argobba, Harla, Harari, and other groups for a common cause.  Mobilized a strong, motivated army with support from religious leaders. Key Events of the War 1. Imam Ahmed’s Early Victories (1527–1529):  Conquered Bali, Dawaro, Fatagar, Sidama, Hadiya, and Kambata (1527).  Defeated Emperor Lebne-Dengel at the Battle of Shimbra Kure, near present day Mojo (1529).  The imam’s army had excellent leadership characterized by better mobility and flexible tactics. 2. Adal’s Expansion (1530–1535):  Gained control over Lasta, Begemidir, Dembiya, and Tigray (1530).  By 1535, set up a civil administration with loyal officials.  Mahfuz’s daughter and Imam’s wife, Bati (Batya) Del Wanbara encouraged her husband to avenge the death of her father.  In 1541, Imam Ahmed received 200 troops and 10 cannons from Ottoman Turks. 3. Portuguese Involvement (1541):  Portugal sent 400 soldiers led by Christopher da Gama in response to an earlier request made by Lebne-Dengel to King João Ill of Portugal in 1535.  The Portuguese were defeated at the battle of Wafla (present day Southern Tigray), and Christopher was killed in 1542. 4. Turning Point – Battle of Zantara (Woyna Dega) (1543):  The remaining Portugese soldiers along with Emperor Gelawdewos defeated and killed Imam Ahmed.  This ended Adal’s territorial conquests. Aftermath of the War 1. Restoration of Christian Kingdom (1543–1559):  Emperor Gelawdewos restored Christian territories. He also tried to reorganize chewa regiments.  Adopted tolerant policies, gaining the support of Muslim highland communities. 2. Death of Gelawdewos (1559):  Killed by Emir Nur ibn al-Wazir Mujahid in revenge for Imam Ahmed’s death. 3. New Challenges (Late 16th Century):  Turkish-backed forces (led by Bahre Negash Yishaq) posed a threat.  Portuguese Jesuits caused internal conflicts. Key Emperors After the War 1. Emperor Minas (1559–1563):  Reclaimed coastal territories from Turkish-backed forces. 2. Emperor Sarsa Dengel (1563–1598):  Defeated Turkish forces in 1587–1589.  Neutralized Bahre Negash Yishaq. Consequences of the Conflict: 1. Human and Material Costs:  Both the Christian Kingdom and Sultanate of Adal were severely weakened. 2. Rise of the Oromo Population Movement:  The weakened states paved the way for Oromo migrations and settlement. 3. Cultural and Religious Interactions:  Linguistic exchanges, religious influences, and intermarriages between groups. 5.2. Foreign Intervention and Religious Controversies o Time Period: Early 16th century to late 18th century. o Main Issues: 1) Foreign interventions by Portugal and the Ottoman Empire. 2) Religious controversies between the Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC) and Jesuit missionaries. 3) Doctrinal divisions within the EOC.  Foreign Influence in Ethiopia o Portuguese and Ottoman Rivalry:  Motivation: Control over the Red Sea and Indian Ocean.  Outcome: No alliance between Ethiopia and Portugal due to Ethiopia's lack of naval power. o Impact on Ethiopia:  The Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC) weakened after conflicts.  The monarchy struggled to restore power and sought alliances with Roman Catholicism for modern weapons. Jesuit Missionaries and Catholic Influence o Portuguese Efforts:  Diplomacy started with Portuguese kings Manuel I (1495–1521) and João III (1521–1557).  Jesuits arrived in 1557 to spread Catholicism. o Key Jesuit Figures:  Joao Bermudez, Andreas de Oviedo, Pedro Paez, Alfonso Mendez. o Doctrinal Conflict:  Jesuits: Christ had two separate natures (divine and human).  EOC (Tewahedo): Christ’s natures were perfectly united (divine and human as one). Early Jesuit Efforts o Emperor Gelawdewos:  Listened to Jesuits but defended EOC doctrines (Confession of Faith).  Rejected Catholicism. o Later Rulers (Minas, Sertse-Dengel):  Ignored Jesuits due to internal and external issues. o Emperor Za Dengel (1603–1604):  Sympathetic to Catholicism but overthrown by Yaeqob 1604-7. Emperor Susenyos and Religious Reform o Reign (1607–1632):  Strengthened his army by recruiting Oromo fighters.  Faced challenges from rebellious groups (Oromo, Bete-Israel, provincial governors).  Sought external support, turning to Jesuits like Pedro Paez.  o Conversion to Catholicism (1612):  Declared Catholicism as the state religion in 1622. o Religious Reforms by Alfonso Mendez:  Re-baptism of priests and the masses.  Rejection of traditional EOC practices like:  Male circumcision and Sabbath observance.  Preaching in Ge’ez  Fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays.  Reverence of Ethiopian saints and the Ark of Covenant.  Adoption of Catholic practices (e.g., eating pork, Gregorian/Latin calendar). o Result:  Revolts by clergy and nobility.  Widespread unrest, including opposition from Susenyos' son, Fasiledes. Decline of Jesuit Influence o Civil War (1632):  Thousands of peasants killed in battles against Catholic reforms.  Susenyos abdicated in favor of Fasiledes (r. 1632–1667). o Fasiledes’ Actions:  Restored the EOC and expelled Jesuits.  Punished Catholic supporters (e.g., Susenyos' brother Se'ela Kristos, Azazh Tino etc.)  Enforced a "closed-door" policy, isolating Ethiopia from Europeans for 150 years.  Exceptions by the visits of French pharmacist, Charles Jacques Poncet (1700) and Scottish traveler, James Bruce (1769). Long-Term Impacts of Jesuit Intervention o Religious Divisions in the EOC: New sects emerged, causing regional conflicts: 1. Tewahedo: Two births of Christ unified by nature (dominant in Tigray, Lasta). 2. Qibat (Unction): Christ anointed by the Holy Spirit (dominant in Gojjam). 3. Sost Lidet (Three Births): Christ born in eternity, in Mary, and anointed (dominant in Gonder, Shewa). o Resolution: Doctrinal unity achieved at the Council of Boru Meda (1878). Tewahedo was accepted as official doctrine. 5.3. Population Movements o Reasons for Migration:  Natural factors: Environmental pressures like drought.  Social factors: Conflicts, trade, and the need for resources. o Impact: Cultural intermingling led to new identities and cultural changes. 5.3.1. Population Movements of the Argobba, Afar, and Somali 1. Argobba o Origins: Two beliefs: 1. Descended from Prophet Muhammad’s followers. 2. Ancient local people who embraced Islam early. o Role:  Major contributors to Islamic expansion.  Key in forming states like Ifat and Shewa Sultanates. o Effect of Conflicts:  Christian-Muslim rivalry caused their dispersion, resulting in scattered settlements. 2. Afar o Location: Northeastern Ethiopia, northern Djibouti, and southern Eritrea. o Governance:  Had indigenous democratic system called Makabanto.  Afar is first mentioned by Arab Geographer ibn Said, occupying lowland territory near Bab el-Mandeb. o Migration:  Drought and wars forced them to move to the Middle Awash by the 16th century. o Key Achievements:  Established famous cities (e.g., Maduna, Abasa).  Created sultanates like Awsa, Girrifo, and Tadjourah.  Awsa Sultanate thrived on the Bati-Ginda’e trade route and became a center of Islamic learning. 3. Somali: o Lifestyle:  Practiced pastoralism and lived nomadically, searching for pasture. o Governance:  Governed by democratic councils called shir, which handled law, resource distribution, marriage, and trade.  Guurti (elders’ council) resolved conflicts. o Historical Role:  Supported Imam Ahmed during his campaigns but returned home after his defeat in 1543. o Major Cities:  Towns like Merca were significant urban centers. 5.3.2. Gadaa System and Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618) The Gadaa System o Purpose:  Social organization, administration, defense, and economic management. o Historical origin:  The Gadaa system is believed to have evolved from earlier Cushitic age-set social organizations.  The earliest era was Bidire Dhoqqe.  Before prevailing Gadaa Borana-Barentu at Madda Walabu around 1450 A.D. the Oromo passed through eras named Teya, Tesa, Munyo, suftu, and others. o Structure:  Divided into age-grades (8 years=1 Gadaa period) and generation sets (5 periods=40 years = one generation; 9 generations=1 era)  Power was shared to prevent dictatorship, with leadership changing every 8 years. Age-Grades in Gadaa (Refer to Table 1)  Dabbale (0-8): Socialization and education.  Gamme (9-16): Basic training.  Follee (17-24): Advanced training in agriculture and skills.  Qondala (25-32): Military service.  Raba-Dori (33-40): Candidates for leadership.  Luba (41-48): Leaders of the Gadaa government. Assumed power for 8 years.  Yuba I-IV (49+): Elders, advisors, and educators. o Leadership Roles in Gadaa Government:  Abba Gadaa Fite: Head of government (father of the period).  Assisted by officials like: o Abba Bokku: Father of the scepter. o Abba Dula: War leader. o Abba Sera: Lawmaker. o Abba Alanga: Judge. o Abba Sa’a: Father of treasury. o Abba Muda (Senior Qallu): Power transition. o Women in Gadaa: Organized in groups like Sinqe to maintain rights. o Women’s group:  Guduru: pre-pubescent.  Qarre: adolescent.  Kalale: wives of Luba and Yuba.  Cifre: wives of Gadaamojji/above 80 years. o Participated in:  Conflict resolution (arara).  Marriage commitments (rakoo).  Blood compensation (guma). Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618) o Reasons for Movement: 1. Natural Causes:  Population growth created land pressure. 2. Social Causes:  Christian-Muslim conflict disrupted their territories. o Key Features:  Organized under Gadaa with confederacies like Borana and Barentu.  Twelve Butta wars drove their movement northward from their center Madda-Walabu:  1. Melba (1522-30): Took Bale. Defeated Batra Amora led by Fasil. 2. Mudena (1530-38): Reached Awash River. 3. Kilole (1538-46): Controlled Dawaro. Defeating Adal Mabraq. 4. Bifole (1546-54): Advanced to Waj and Erer. 5. Michille (1554-62): Controlled Dago after defeating Dejjazmach Hamalmal. 6. Hambisa/Harmufa (1562-70): Occupied Angot, Ganyzi, and Sayint. Fought Minas’ force. 7. Robale Gadaa (1570-78): 1st defeated by Sartsa-Dengel at Woyna Dega in 1574, but later win. 8. Birmaji (1578–86): Advanced into Waj and Weleqa. 9. Dulo (1594–1602): Expanded into West and Northern regions. o Major Centers:  Madda Walabu: Main Gadaa center.  Other centers included Oda Nabee, Oda Roba, Oda Bultum, Oda Bulluq, and Me’e Bokko. o Key leaders:  Dawe Gobbo (Borana), Anna Sorra (Guji), Babbo Koyye (Jimma). 5.4 Ethnic and Religious Interaction and Integration o Spread of Christianity and Islam:  Christianity spread southward due to the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and the Christian kingdom.  Wars of Imam Ahmed and population movements of the Argobba, Afar, and Somali helped Islam expand into Christian territories. o Impact of Oromo Movement:  Oromo controlled large territories with minimal resistance from imperial forces.  Social integration of diverse communities occurred through mechanisms like:  Guddifacha: Adoption of children with equal rights.  Moggasa: Amalgamation of groups into clans via oaths. o Exchange of traditions:  Neighboring groups adopted Oromo traditions like the Gadaa system and Oromo language.  Oromo adopted monarchical systems and integrated into the Christian political system.  Rise of Oromo elites: Political leaders, nobles, and regional dynasties emerged due to integration efforts.  o Integration into the Ethiopian State:  Military service, alliances, and political strategies integrated Oromo into Ethiopian establishments.  This process continued during the Gondarine period, Zemene Mesafint, and modern Ethiopia. 5.5 Peoples and States in Eastern, Central, Southern, and Western Regions 5.5.1 Peoples and States in the East o Emirate of Harar:  Harar became a walled city under Emir Nur Mujahid.  Emir Ali ibn Da’ud founded a dynasty that lasted 250 years. Strengthened by Amirs.  The Amir’s council, Majlis, supervised mosque land called Waqf, and assited the Amirs.  Amirs expanded influence via trade, intermarriage, and Islamic teachings. 5.5.2 Peoples and States in Central and South Central Regions o Kingdom of Shewa:  Founded by Negasi Kristos (1696–1703), linked to the Solomonid dynasty.  Kings expanded Christian influence and attempted to control surrounding regions like Afar and Oromo.  Leaders: Abuye (killed by Karrayu Oromo), Amaha Iyesus (effective ruler).  Economy relied on agriculture, trade, and crafts. o Gurage:  Two groups:  Western Gurage (Sebat Bet) – Chaha, Muher, Ezha, Gumer, Inamor and others.  Northern Gurage (Kistane) – Aymalal or Soddo.  Traditional governance:  Yajoka Qicha (Sebat Bet) and Gordanna Sera (Kistane) systems.  Leaders held the title abegaz or azmatch, combining political and military authority.  Enset was the staple crop. o Silte:  Origin tied to movements during conflicts between Christian and Muslim states.  Cultivated enset in highlands and cereals in lowlands. Other include Khat, Berbere, coffee trade. o Hadiya:  State origins date to the 13th century.  Population influenced by Oromo movements and Christian-Muslim conflicts.  Political importance grew through its large territory and alliances.  Known for Queen Elleni, wife of Emperor Zara Yaqob.  o Kambata:  Formed through unification of four communities (Dubamo, Donga, Tembaro) by about 1550- 70.  Governed by the Hambericho Council of seven clans.  Economy: Enset cultivation, similar culture, and shared language. o Halaba:  Inhabited territory between Bilate River and Lake Hawassa.  Governed by the Woma (king) and Halabi Ogete (village leader council).  The traditional administrative system functioned based on Sera, laws and values of society.  Economy relied on red pepper, maize, and teff cultivation. 5.5.3 Peoples and States in the South o Sidama:  Governed by the Mote (king) and council of elders (Songo).  Woma handled ritual matters such as sacrifices for spirits, circumcision and marriage.  Society organized into five-generation sets (Luwa) each lasting 8 years.  Each class has its own leader named gaden.  The Sidama sera governed based on moral code, halale (ultimate truth).  Economy centered on enset and coffee cultivation. o Gedeo:  Origin: The Gedeo trace their origin to Daraso, believed to be the elder brother of Gujo, the forefather of the Guji Oromo.  Clans:  The society is divided into seven major clans, grouped into two houses:  Shole Batte (Senior House): Contains four clans.  Sase Batte (Junior House): Contains three clans.  Balle System:  Traditional governance structure based on age and ranking.  Governance was organized into seven age grades, each lasting 10 years, forming a 70-year cycle.  The highest authority was the Abba Gadaa (leader), selected from the age groups.  The Abba Gadaa served for eight years and was then replaced by a leader from the next age set.  Territorial Organization:  The Gedeo territories were grouped into three:  Sobbho  Ributa  Rikuta. Together, they formed a federation governed under one Abba Gadaa. o Konso:  Known for terrace farming and soil conservation techniques.  Their economy also depended on bee-keeping and crafts.  Lived in walled villages which were further divided into wards called kanta.  Ruled by village councils (Hayyota) through direct participation. Rotated every 18 years. 5.5.4 Peoples and States in the Southwest o Wolayta:  Ruled by dynasties and governed by the Kawo (king) with council advisors.  Enset was the staple crop; land was distributed based on loyalty or achievements. o Yem:  Initially, indigenous dynasty named Dida/Halmam-Gamma ruled Yem from its tunta (palace).  Later, new dynasty called Mowa (Howa) was established.  Governed by the Amno (king) with 12 council advisors (Astessor).  Below them were erasho (provincial governors) and gagna (district governors).  Known for defensive ditches and agricultural economy. o Dawuro:  Inhabited by 3 major clans: Malla, Dogolla, and Amara.  Ruler dynasty: Kawuka dynasty.  Famous rulers: Kati Irashu and Kati Halala  Famous for stone fortifications.  Economy based on mixed agriculture. o Gamo:  Woga: defined land use.  Gamo settlements were organized in autonomous village named dere.  Governed by hereditary rulers (Kawo) and communal assemblies (Dulata).  Halaqa – initiatives. Dubusha – assembly sites.  Dulala (assembly) elected married man as leaders called huduga/maga.  Enset was central in geze (highlands) while maize and sweet potato common in bazo (lowlands).  Specialized in pottery, tanning, and metalworking. o Ari:  Organized into 10 independent clans led by hereditary chief called babi.  The babi was assisted by:  godimis – religious leader  zis – village heads  tsokis – intelligence agents  The chief exercised both political and ritual power. o Kafa  Prominent dynasty: Minjo Dynasty.  Royal title: tato (king). Assited by council of 7 advisors called Mikrecho.  The council moderated the power of the king and had role in royal succession.  Andaracha: Political Center.  Economy: enset cultivation, trade (ivory, gold, slaves, honey-wax, coffee) and digging trenches (erio) as defensive barrier. 5.5.5 Peoples and States in the West o Anywa  Origin: founding father named Oshoda.  Villages governed by chiefs (Kuaari) and nobles (Nyiye) who distributed land and settled disputes.  Economy: Farming and grazing. o Majang:  Origin: Boma plateau in South Sudan.  Practiced shifting cultivation, animal husbandry, beekeeping, and hunting. o Nuer:  Had an age-set system for social and political roles.  Boys underwent rigorous initiation rites to become adults. o Berta and Gumuz:  Influenced by Islamic trade contacts with Sudan.  Known for gold deposits. o Kunama:  Governed by the Sanga-Anene council with hereditary roles (from eldest brother to the next born).  Economy: Cultivation of sorghum (kina), maize (afokina) and livestock. 5.6. The Gondarine Period and Zemene-Mesafint 5.6.1. The Gondarine Period (1630-1780s) o Political Developments  Lasted about 130 years.  Divided into three phases:  Foundation and Glory (1630-1706).  Insecurity (1706-1720).  Revival and Decline (1720-1780s). o Foundation of Gondar:  Gondar was founded as a permanent capital in 1636 by Emperor Fasiledes.  Reasons for choosing Gondar:  Close to Red Sea–Lake Tana–Enarya trade route.  Near main caravan route from Mettema to Lake Tana.  Surrounded by mountains for protection.  Free from malaria found in lower Lake Tana regions. Notable Emperors: o Emperor Fasiledes (r. 1632-67):  Founded Gondar as the royal capital.  Restored the Alexandrian faith.  Expelled Jesuits. o Iyasu I (Iyasu the Great/Adyam Saggad, r. 1682-1706):  Expanded the empire's control.  Undertook tax and land reforms.  Strengthened ties with regions like Massawa and Enarya.  Last strong emperor of the Gondarine period before rise of Tewodros II in the modern period. o Insecurity Period (1706–1720):  Began with the assassination of Iyasu I by his son, Tekle-Haymanot in 1706.  Reign marked by assassinations and intrigues:  Tekle-Haymanot was crowned in 1706 and killed in 1708 by Tewoflos.  Tewoflos assassinated in 1711 by Yostos, who was poisoned in 1717.  Yostos was replaced by Dawit III, who was himself poisoned and replaced by Bakkafa in 1721.  Marked by factionalism and regional rivalries.  o Revival and Decline (1720–1780s):  Emperor Bakkafa (r. 1721–1730) restored some stability with the help of Etege Mentewab (Berhan Mogasa).  Decline began in the 1730s due to Regional factions:  Qwara (led by Mentewab).  Oromo faction from Wollo (led by Iyoas’s maternal uncles).  Tigray faction (led by Ras Mikael Sehul).  Mentewab's marriage alliance between her son Iyasu II (r. 1730–1755) and Wubit (Wollo Oromo) led to the architect of all these factions.  Iyoas took power in 1755 and invited his maternal uncles to the royal court, which they begin to dominate.  Ras Mikael Sehul overthrew Iyoas and enthroned Yohannes II, marking regional lords' dominance over the monarchy.  The main reason behind all these factions was to obtain the title “ras bitwedded”. Cultural Achievements of the Gondarine Period 1. Architecture:  Gondarine kings built castles, bridges, baths, churches, and libraries.  Fasil Gebbi: A royal compound with palaces of Fasilides, Iyasu I, Dawit II, and Mentewab.  Notable bridges built by:  Emperor Sartsa-Dengel Guzara Palace near Enfraz at about 1586.  Emperor Susenyos over the Blue Nile at Alata. 2. Painting:  Rich religious artwork on manuscripts, wood, and church walls.  Churches built by Mentewab featured beautiful paintings. 3. Literature:  Produced illuminated manuscripts like Gospels, Miracles of Mary, and Lives of Saints.  Renowned for music, poetry, and bookmaking. 4. Trade and Urbanization:  Gondar established the first daily market in Ethiopia.  Diverse population: Iberians, Indians, Greeks, and Armenians (around 60,000-70,000).  Religious groups: Christians, Muslims, Bete Israel.  Major religious and education center of churches:  Nebab Bet (Reading school), Qedasse Bet (Liturgy school).   Higher schools: Zema Bet (Music), Qene Bet (Poetry), Metsehaf Bet (Holy Book Interpretation). 5.6.2. The Zemene-Mesafint (Era of Princes, 1786–1853) o Time Period:  From 1786 (Ras Ali I’s rise/founder of Yajju dynasty) to 1853 (defeat of Ras Ali II/last ruler of Yajju by Kasa Haylu, later Emperor Tewodros II). o Key Events:  Initiated by Ras Mikael, who deposed Emperor Iyoas in 1769.  He then started to take actions against the nobility which made him unpopular.  Coalitions of nobles from Gojjam, Amhara, Lasta, and Wollo deafeated him at the battle of Sarbakussa inn 1771. o Major Regional Powers:  Yejju (Warraseh) Dynasty:  Controlled Gondar from Debre Tabor for seven decades.  Reached its peak under Ras Gugsa Marso (r. 1803–1825).  Defeated rivals like Ras Walde-Silassie of Enderta and Dejjazmatch Sabagadis Woldu.  Other regional lords from Tigray, Gojjam, Simen, Wollo, etc., fought for dominance.  Battle of May Aslamay (1831): Yejju dynasty defeated Simen rulers but lost key leaders. o Key Features:  Political decentralization with power shifting to regional lords.  The emperor became a symbolic figure, controlled by powerful nobles.  Frequent conflicts among regional rulers over influence in Gondar.  Decline of centralized culture and military systems.  Breakdown of Ge’ez literature, painting, and architecture.  Regional rulers allied with foreign powers to gain influence.  Regions like Shewa began consolidating as semi-independent states. o Positive Developments:  Symbol of Unity: The emperor remained a source of legitimacy.  Preservation of Solomonid Dynasty: Despite decentralization, regional lords upheld the dynasty’s continuity  Cultural Diversity: Interaction between regions enriched Ethiopia's culture.  Rise of Independent Kingdoms: paving the way for Ethiopia’s unification.  UNIT SIX INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND EXTERNAL RELATIONS IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN, (1800-1941) 6.1 Nature of Interactions Among Peoples and States in Ethiopia and the Horn 6.1.1 Peoples and States in South-Central, Southwestern, and Western Ethiopia o Qabena  Emerged in south-central Ethiopia in the late 19th century.  Became a center for a Muslim revivalist movement influenced by Wollo Muslim refugees and possible links to Mahdist Sudan.  Movement led to rapid spread of Islam in the region. o The Five Gibe States (Monarchical States of the Mecha Oromo)  Abba-Dula (war leaders) established hereditary monarchies.  Wealth came from controlling trade and taxing goods. 1. Limmu-Enarya:  Founded by Bofo/Abba Gomol (1800-1825).  Reached its peak under his son, Ibsa/Abba Bogibo (1825-1861).  Known for incorporating nearby territories like Hagalo and Badi-Folla.  Ibsa was succeeded by Abba Bulgu. 2. Guma:  Founded by Jilcha Abba Bal’o of Chira.  Completed by his son, Oncho (1810-1830).  Followed by Jawwe (1840-1854). 3. Gomma:  Established by Abba Boke (1800-1829).  Islam spread widely here under Abba Mano (1829-1840). 4. Jimma:  Early influence from woman named Makahore.  Ose Kobi (Abba Faro) was the first monarch.  Completed by Sanna/Abba Jifar I (1830-1855).  Reached its peak under Abba Jifar II (1875-1934).  Economy based on iron, gold, and coffee.  5. Gera:  Finalized under Tullu Gunji (1835-1838) and his successors like Abba Rago I (1838-1848). o Key Officials in Gibe States  Abba Gurmu: Second-in-command to the king.  Abba Mizan: Treasurer and foreign affairs official.  Abba Dango: Immigration chief.  Abba Qoro: Disrtict governer.  Abba Ganda: Village chief.  Abba Busi: Tax head.  Abba Jiga: Murder case judge.  Abba Qawe: Bodyguard.  Farmers paid taxes in crops (using buchano (15kgs) and later guboo (25kgs) measuring units). o The Leqa States 1. Lega-Naqamte:  Founded by Bakare Godana (1840).  Reached its peak under Kumsa Moroda (Dejazmach Gebre-Egziabiher) who encouraged trade, gold mining, and coffe planting. 2. Lega-Qellam:  Founded by Tullu, expanded under his son, Jote (centered at Gidami, controlled Seyyo- Dambi Dollo). o Ilu:  Established by Tume clan leader Chali Shono (Abba Bor) in the early 19th century. o Nilotic Sheikhdoms  Arabic-speaking Sudanese merchants merged with Berta people.  The merger came to be known as “Watawit”.  Major sheikhdoms:  Asosa (Aqoldi) under Sheikh Khojale al-Hasan.  Bela/Beni-Shangul under Abd al-Rahman Khojale.  Khomosha under Khojale Muhammad Wad Mahmud.  Guba, along the Ethio-Sudanese border.  Economy: Agriculture, gold mining, frontier trade.  6.1.2. Trade and Trade Routes Major Trade Routes o Southwest to Northern Ethiopia  Linked cities: Bonga (Capital of Kafa) → Hirmata (Jimma) → Saqa (Limmu) → Billo (Leqa- Naqamte) → Asendabo (Guduru) → Basso-Yajube (Gojjam) → Yifag and Darita (Begimeder) → Gonder.  From Gonder, there are 2 routes:  One passed through Chilga to Matamma-Qallabat (Gallabat).  The other passed through Adwa, Asmara and entered Massawa.  The other split occurred in Basso:  The 1st one mentioned above (by the arrows).  The 2nd one went northward towards Ancharo and Dawwe (Wollo) → Awsa (Afar) → Tajura, Obbok, and Rahe’ta (Djibouti). o Southwest to Harar and Somali Coast  Route: Bonga → Hirmata → Agabja-Andode-Toli-Soddo (SW Shewa) → Rogge (Yerer) → Aliyu Amba/Abdul Rasul (N. Shewa) → Harar → Zeila/Berbera. Trade Items  Exports: Civet musk, honey, wax, coffee, spices, slaves.  Imports: Mirrors, ironware.  Mediums of Exchange  Salt bars (amole) from Afar.  Maria Theresa Thaler (MTT), a silver coin from Austria.  Cotton cloth (abujadi) and cowrie shells. Active Traders  Muslim merchants dominated long-distance trade:  Afqala (SW Muslim Oromo merchants).  Jabarti (northern merchants).  Jallaba (Sudanese merchants).  Argobba merchants traded between Harar and the Somali coast. 6.2 The Making of the Modern Ethiopian State Process of Territorial Unification o The End of Zemene Mesafint:  Kasa Hailu of Qwara ended Zemene Mesafint (the Era of the Princes).  Initially served under his half-brother Dejazmach Kinfu of Dambeya, who died in 1839.  Qwara was then given to Etege Menen (Ras Ali II mother).  Kasa became a shifta (bandit) and gained fame.  Kasa was married to Tewabech, the daughter of Ras Ali, and was appointed as governor of Qwara.  However, Kasa felt he wasn’t well treated and resumed his shiftnet. o Key Battles: 1. Gur Amba (Nov 27,1852): Defeated Dejjach Goshu of Gojam. 2. Taqusa/Gorgora Bichen (Apr 12,1853): Defeated four Dejjazmachs (Birru Aligaz, Aben, Yazew and Belew) sent by Ras Ali II. 3. Ayshal (June 29,1853): Defeated Ras Ali II. 4. Deresge (Feb 8,1855): Defeated Dejjach Wube of Simen and Tigray. Crowning: On February 9, 1855, Kasa was crowned Emperor Tewodros II by Abune Salama. Tewodros II’s Rule (1855-1868)  Objective: Create a strong centralized government.  Resistance: Faced opposition from local rulers (e.g., Tadla Gwalu of Gojam, Amade Bashir of Wollo).  His imprisonment of Europeans provoked the British to send huge military expedition.  British Expedition: Defeated at the Battle of Maqdela (Apr, 13,1868); committed suicide.  Legacy: Laid groundwork for unity and modernization, despite tragic end. o Wagshum Gobaze Gabramadhin of Lasta, Bezbez Kasa Mircha of Tigray and Menelik of Shewa emerged as contenders to the throne. o Gobeze immediately assumed power as Emperor Tekle-Giyorgis II (1868-71). o Kassa Mircha defeated Tekle Giyorgis at the battle of Assam (July 1871) and was crowned as Emperor Yohannes IV in Jan 1872. Yohannes IV’s Rule (1872-1889)  Decentralized Governance: Allowed autonomy for regional rulers (e.g., Menilek as Negus of Shewa by Liche agreement in 1878 and Ras Adal Tesema as negus Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam and Kafa).  Religious Unity:  Council of Boru Meda (1878): Declared Tewahedo the only EOC doctrine.  Forced conversion of Muslims; met with mixed responses and resistance:  Mohammed Ali and Amede Liben converted and changed their names to Ras Michael and Dejjach Hayle-Mariam respectively.   Other accepted outwardly but still remained Muslims (Christians by day and Muslims by night).  Others resisted and fled to Arsi, Gurage, Jimma, and Sudan.  Others revolted under leadership of Sheikh Tolla (Talha).  Death: Killed at the Battle of Metemma (1889). Named Mengesha Yohannes as successor, but Menilek II seized the throne. Menilek II’s Ascension (1889-1913) Consolidation of Power: Forced Ras Mengesha’s submission and appointed him temporary governor of Tigray. He was later replaced by Ras Mekonnen Wolde Mikael. Territorial Expansion:  Utilized modern firearms and skilled generals.  Divided into three phases: 1. Expansion as King of Shewa (1865-1889). 2. Post-coronation until the Battle of Adwa (1889-1896). 3. Aftermath of Adwa (1896-1900). 1. Expansion as King of Shewa (1865–1889) 1.1. Areas Incorporated: o Oromo Territories:  Tulama and Eastern Mecha Oromo areas were incorporated before the 1870s.  Local leaders who submitted:  Ashe Rufo of Salale  Dula Ara'e of Gullale  Tufa Muna of Gimbichu  Ture Galate of Soddo  Leaders like Ras Gobana Dache, Dejjach Balcha Safo (Abba Nefs) joined Menilek and became key allies in later expansions. 1.2. Peaceful Submission: o Northern Gurage:  Submitted peacefully between 1875–1876 due to religious ties and fear of surrounding Oromo forces. 1.3. Resistance: o Western Gurage:  Led by Hasan Enjamo of Qabena, resisted until Ras Gobana defeated them in 1888. 2. Expansion Post-Coronation to the Battle of Adwa (1889–1896) 2.1. Southern Territories: o Gibe Region (South of the Abay River):  Local rulers in areas like Jimma Abba Jifar, Leqa-Naqamte, and Lega-Qellem submitted peacefully after being promised autonomy. o Resistance:  Coalition of local leaders (Garbi Jilo, Tucho Dano, and others) defeated Menilek's army at Gara Dobbi.  Menilek later subdued these areas. 2.2. Battles and Conquests: o Horro Guduru (Gojjam Rivalry):  Gojjam's Ras Adal Tesema had controlled the area until Menilek defeated his forces at the Battle of Embabo (June 6, 1882).  This secured Menilek's dominance over Gojjam. o Arsi Oromo:  Fierce resistance over six campaigns (1882–1886).  Leaders like Sufa Kuso, Damu Usu, Lenjiso Diga and Gosa Dilamo initially defeated Menilek at Dodota and Qal'ata.  Ras Darge Sahile Selassie defeated the Arsi at the Battle of Azule (September 6, 1886), followed by the brutal Anole incident (1887). o East:  Dejjach Wolde-Gabr’el fought against Ittu in 1886 and incorporated Chercher. o Harar and Eastern Oromo:  Emir Abdullahi of Harar (r. 1885-1887) resisted but was defeated at Chalanko (January 6, 1887) by Dejazmach Mekonnen.  Dejazmach (later Ras) Mekonnen was appointed governor of Harar. 3. Expansion After the Battle of Adwa (1896–1900) 3.1. The Great Famine (Kifu Qen):  The famine of 1888–1892 weakened resistance in southern Ethiopia, aiding Menilek’s expansion. 3.2. Southern Conquests:  Menelik’s army occupied Dawuro-Konta and Kambata in 1889 and 1890 respectively. o Gamo Gofa, Sidama, and Bale:  Incorporated between 1890–1894 through military campaigns. o Wolayta:  Fierce resistance led by Kawo (King) Tona.  Menilek's army, including key generals like Ras Mikael, Fitawrari Gebeyehu, Dejjach Balcha Safo, and Abba Jifar II defeated Wolayta in 1894 with heavy casualties. o Borana, Gedeo, and Konso:  Conquered after the Wolayta campaign. o Kafa:  King Tato Gaki Sherocho resisted but was defeated by Ras Wolde Giorgis in 1897.  Resistance resulted in significant human losses. 3.3. Western Expansion: o Beni Shangul-Gumuz:  Incorporated after the Battle of Fadogno (1897–1898). o Maji and Gambella (Baro/Sobat River):  Controlled after campaigns by Tesemma Nadew in 1898–1899. 6.3 Modernization Attempts o Under Tewodros II:  Introduced military titles like Yasr Alaqa, Yamsa Alaqa, Yashi Alaqa etc.  Established a national salaried army and weapons workshop in Gafat (e.g., built 35 cannons like "Sebastopol").  Began road construction to link major regions (Debre Tabor with Gondar, Gojjam and Maqdela).  Reformed land tenure and banned polygamy.  Developed Amharic literature and communication with foreign powers.  1st library in Maqdela.  Reduced land held by churches and number of priests and deacons serving every church.  o Under Yohannes IV:  Appointed Ethiopia’s first foreign consul in London.  Introduced 1st modern medical practices (e.g., smallpox vaccination, syphilis treatment). o Under Menilek II:  Postal services and telecommunication networks.  Djibouti-Addis Ababa railway construction.  Opened institutions like the Bank of Abyssinia (1905), Menelik II school (1908), Itege/Taytu Hotel (1910), and Menelik II hospital (1910).  Introduced his own silver coin to replace MTT.  Established a European-style ministerial system (1907).  Key Ministers:  Minister of Justice – Afe-Negus Nesibu Meskelo  Minister of Imperial Court – Azazh Metaferia Melke-Tsadiq  Minister of Finance – Bejirond Mulugeta Yigezu  Minister of War – Fitawrari Habte Giyorgis  Minister of Commerce and Foreign Relations – Negadras Hailegiorgis Weldemikael  Minister of Pen – Tsehafe-Tizaz Gebre-Selase Welde Aregay o Under Lij Iyasu:  Banned the quragna and leba shay systems.  Reforms included municipal police (Tirnbulle), criminal investigation, auditing government accounts.  He tried to integrate Muslims into administration.  Introduction of several factories. o Under Haile Selassie I:  First Ethiopian constitution (1931).  Opened Ethiopia’s first Military Academy at Holeta with help of Swedish (1934).  Established Kebur Zebegna (the Imperial Body Guard) (1930) with help of Belgians.