Animal Health Information System And Disease Outbreak Investigation PDF

ANIMAL HEALTH INFORMATION SYSTEM AND DISEASE OUTBREAK INVESTIGATION VPM 823 Dr. A. J. Ogugua (DVM, PhD, FCVSN)  Information Information is the output that results from analyzing, contextualizing, structuring, interpreting or processing data. It infuses...

ANIMAL HEALTH INFORMATION SYSTEM AND DISEASE OUTBREAK INVESTIGATION VPM 823 Dr. A. J. Ogugua (DVM, PhD, FCVSN)  Information Information is the output that results from analyzing, contextualizing, structuring, interpreting or processing data. It infuses meaning and value into raw data, facilitating understanding, communication and learning. Information is different from raw data. Data are just facts and figures, while information is data that has been processed and given context. Information can come from many sources, including books, websites, observations, experiments, and more. It is created when data is presented in a way that has meaning to the recipient. 2  Information “Once information has been gathered, something has to be done with it. Three things must happen to information: firstly, it must be managed, controlled and quality-checked; secondly, it must be analysed in order to become more understandable, and thirdly, it must be acted upon” 3  Information/data gathering Veterinary Services require effective systems for gathering relevant information from the field, processing it into a form which is easy for national policy makers and field staff to use in implementing appropriate actions to achieve effective disease control. The use of web-based animal health information systems now makes it possible to achieve almost instant dissemination of information, while increased communication and connectivity between individuals and organisations throughout the world means that there are now more sources of information on animal diseases than ever before. 4  Animal health information systems In brief terms, animal health information systems are systems into which information and data relating to animal health and disease are gathered, collated and analyzed into meaningful and useful forms which can then be used for disease monitoring, early warning or decision-making purposes. A national animal health information system is the complete system responsible for handling information about the health of livestock in a country. A national animal health information system is a computerised system into which data relating to animal health in a country can be entered, collated, and analysed to provide useful outputs in the form of reports and maps. 5  Animal health information systems Regional animal health information systems are made for the report of disease in different regions of the world egs: The EU’s Animal Diseases Information System (ADIS) and the ASEAN Regional Animal Health Information System (ARAHIS). Global animal health information systems, including the OIE’s World Animal Health Information System (WAHIS), FAO’s EMPRES-i system and ProMED. However, it should be noted that some of the animal health information systems are password protected and are not, therefore, publicly accessible. 6 Purposes of animal health information systems. --Providing comprehensive information to decision makers on disease, control measures and their consequences –-Sharing of information within countries and between countries (early warning system) – Monitoring disease occurrence and control programs – Estimating vaccination coverage --Providing information required to meet international disease reporting needs – Supporting declarations of disease status for trading purposes – Identifying unusual disease events or emerging diseases – Highlighting shortfalls/gaps in surveillance 7  Transboundary Animal Disease Information System (TADinfo) (FAO, 2016). TADinfo was developed by FAO and is known as Transboundary Animal Disease Information System (TADinfo) TADinfo can be customised to suit a particular country’s needs, with geographical information being imported for that particular country, and is designed such that the data can be easily transferred into other regional and global animal health information systems. 8 While the first generation was developed in MS Access and relied on ArcView geographic information system software for its mapping capabilities, the new TADinfo reflects some important innovations 9 TADinfo 10 TADInfo 11  Geographical Information System (GIS) GIS is a computerized data base management system for “capturing, storing, validating, maintaining, analysing, displaying and managing spatially referenced data with a primary function to integrate data from a variety of sources.” GIS consists of four major components: input, storage, manipulation and output of geographical data. They are used as tools for analysis, modeling and decision-making. GIS can be used in different studies including marketing studies, telecommunications, and location of restaurants, museums and hospitals; in establishing maps of animal population density by species or maps of vegetation coverage change; in locating forests, rivers, and mountains; indicating disease outbreak sites. 12  Some uses of GIS In recent years geographic information systems (GIS) have become widely used in a number of areas including urban and regional planning, utility management, land suitability assessment, environmental resource monitoring, emergency response management and ecological modelling. GIS has been used for retrieval problems and are analytical and modelling tool systems. In the field of veterinary science the potential of GIS for animal disease control has been explored during the development of decision support systems. 13  Advantages of GIS The advantage of GIS is mapping the many different locations of farms and other facilities with animals on a single map which helps in better monitoring and surveillance. GIS also provides detailed information on: --disease forecasting, --prediction of outbreaks, --identification of disease clusters or hotspot, --creation of buffer zones and to --evaluate different strategies to prevent the spread of infectious diseases. 14  --provides an ideal condition for the collection of disease related data and their analyses in relation to population distribution, surrounding social and health services and the natural environmental conditions. In the area of disease reporting GIS is a very useful tool for providing maps of the spatial distribution of diseases. Given the availability of an up-to-date database, new maps representing the most current situation can be produced almost instantly and the spatial dynamics of disease occurrence can be monitored over time. 15 Challenges to the application of GIS The application of GIS in the routine activities of the majority of developing countries including Nigeria is not optimal. This is mainly due to: --lack of awareness of decision-makers; --low stock of base data; --uncertain data discovery, --access and exchange mechanisms; --insufficient human and technical resources. --One of the challenges in GIS science and many other fields is the efficient and economical processing of massive data sets. 16  Limitations of GIS Limitations. --it is expensive. --requires enormous data inputs that are needed to be practical for some other tasks. --GIS layers might lead to some costly mistakes. -There might be failures initiating additional efforts in order to fully implement the GIS. --A GIS system stores extremely large amounts of data at any given time which may create problems when it comes to analysis due to the complexity of the data and the risk of generalization. --GIS data require complex overlay operations that are difficult to achieve especially when the personnel involved are not properly trained. 17  Visual display of spatial phenomena --The visual display of spatial phenomena provides a very effective descriptive analytical tool. For instance, this method was used to describe the spatial occurrence of different strains of Mycobacterium bovis in a wild animal population which allowed inferences on the importance of specific disease transmission paths. --GIS was also used to display the distribution of brown ear ticks in southern Africa, retrospectively comparing the ecoclimatic favourability of particular locations for Rhipicephalus appendiculatus with the occurrence of East Coast fever. 18  Spatial analysis Spatial analysis involves three basic steps; the preparation of an appropriate model, its proper visualization, and an exploratory data analysis, These range from simple map overlay to statistical models. Spatial analysis interprets and predicts population and inanimate objects movement from one place to another. For example, the movement of animals between wild and domestic areas is a form of spatial interaction, which has a crucial role in disease transmission. By accurately projecting these movements, high risk areas for disease transmission can be identified well in advance and thus intervention efforts can be planned and implemented accordingly. 19  Spatial analyses In spatial analysis three different types of spatial data can be analysed: point patterns, geostatistical data and lattice data. Point patterns: The analysis of point patterns is important in veterinary epidemiology as it allows inferences on the occurrence of spatial clustering. The presence of clustering would suggest infectiousness or the presence of specific environmental risk factors. Geostatistical data: Statistical methodology allows to assess if a point pattern is regular, random or clustered. Based on this information further analyses can be conducted to identify areas of locally increased risk or even factors which influence transmission probability. Lattice data: A representation of a surface using an array of regularly spaced sample points (mesh points) that are referenced to a common origin and have a constant sampling distance in the x and y directions. 20 Applications of GIS in Veterinary Medicine --GIS is very important in the veterinary field. --GIS was first applied in veterinary medicine in 1994 for foot and-mouth disease epidemic. GIS has a wide-range of applications in veterinary medicine, such as outbreak notification, prevention and eradication of disease, disease surveillance, understanding and explaining disease dynamics and spreading patterns and correlation of disease trends with climate. 21  Application of GIS in veterinary medicine --It can map a variety of epidemiological information like morbidity, mortality, prevalence and incidence and geographical distribution of the diseases, --GIS helps the epidemiologists and public health professionals in the veterinary sector in analyzing associations between various locations, environment and disease pattern by providing different types of maps particularly for the spatial analysis. --GIS was applied for assessing the risk and the spatio-temporal distribution of diseases in different countries. In veterinary epidemiology GIS can be applied for buffer generation, overlay operation, neighborhood analysis and spatial analysis. 22  Overlay operations is operation in GIS that allow us to combine information from different vector files into a new file that is more tailored to our needs. By applying an overlay operation, specific changes occur at the spatial level as well as on the attribute level. Buffer generation calculates the distance from each cell to its nearest source. It is frequently used for applications, such as finding the nearest hospital, to calculate the distances from site of outbreak , to calculate the distances to major roads. 23  GIS software Two commonly used GIS software in veterinary medicine include quantum GIS (QGIS) and arc GIS. The output of GIS provides a way to see the data or information in the form of maps, tables, diagrams, and so on. 24  Data Sources of GIS The data for GIS can be derived from paper map, remote sensing and Global Positioning System (GPS). Paper map It is one of the most known sources of GIS, in which the information is plotted within a coordinate system that allows us to find its location. Mapping is a common technique of displaying the geographical distribution of disease and associated risk factors with the aid of digitizing maps. To digitize paper maps into a digital format, first, we must convert data from analog to digital format. Then, convert digital map into a scanned document and finally transform the digitized map from a source coordinate system to the geographic coordinate system using tics marks. 25  Remote sensing Remote sensing is the science and art of obtaining information about an item, area, or phenomenon through the analysis of data obtained by a device that isn’t in physical contact with the object, area, or phenomenon under investigation. In such conditions, information is gathered in the form of digital photos of the earth’s surface from airborne or satellite platforms and transforming them into maps. Usually, sensor devices are mounted on satellites or aircraft, or are installed at fixed coastal locations, that measure the electromagnetic radiation (EMR ) that is emitted or reflected by features of the earth’s surface, and which then convert the EMR into a signal that can be recorded and displayed as either numerical data or as an image. 26  Global positioning system (GPS) GPS is a satellite-based navigation system made of a network of twenty-four satellites placed into orbit that transmits precise microwave signals. The microwave signals later allow the GPS receiver to determine its location, direction and time. Data from GPS can be utilized in association with existing spatial databases for a range of applications in spatial decision making. 27  Application of GIS in Animal Disease Surveillance For a control strategy or to eradicate a disease, the exact disease status in that community is required to be known. GIS is one of the best tools used in various disease monitoring and surveillance programs today. GIS is being used to visualize disease foci, monitor newly infected or re-infected villages, and identify populations at risk , target cost-effective interventions, and monitor eradication efforts. 28  GIS have been used in territorial cross-sectional and longitudinal parasitological surveys in order to experiment new applications to plan sampling protocols and to display the spatial distribution of infectious disease data to understand natural habitat and pattern of disease caused by infectious agents to animals. GIS can be used to combine the information of computer maps with geographical data in order to support the spatial relationships along with patterns and trends in predicting future health status that need to be explored. Previously GIS was used to display the distribution of brown ear ticks in southern Africa, retrospectively comparing the eco-climatic favorability of particular locations for Rhipicephalus appendiculatus with the occurrence of East Coast fever. 29 Formats of Disease Occurrence data on a map using GIS The representation of disease incidence data can vary from simple point maps for cases and pictorial representation of counts. The pattern and the presentation of spatial disease distribution can be divided into dot, diagram, choropleth and flow maps. Dot maps are able to show each health event with the resolution of a pair of coordinates, x (longitude) and y (latitude). Choropleth maps are used to display mortality or morbidity rates (for instance) for defined geographical units by coloring, shading or hatching. The choice of map color is of great importance as it helps to transform numerical information into an informative map. 30  Flow maps are able to show the distribution dynamics of health events in time and space. Diagram maps provide added value to the presentation of quantitative data within a map. It is also important to make a decision on the number of categories and the choice of cut-off points. In some cases, the primary aim of classification is to provide the reader the maximum available information, and the choice will depend on whether or not the scale is data- dependent. A clear distinction between different parts of the map should be appreciated by the reader. 31 Recording and reporting disease information using GIS GIS can be used to produce maps of disease incidence, prevalence, mortality, and morbidity on farm, region, or national levels. The information is more easily understood when visualized on a map. If the information is mapped at the farm level, value of data is maintained, and also small parts of a region can be visualized at the same time. The GIS was also incorporated in outbreak notification, for example in an eradication program of the Aujeszky’s disease in North Carolina. Geographical and disease incidence data were used as an input to notify the community for the occurrence of a particular disease in a specific area. GIS is one of the best tools for study and application of the Global Early Warning System (GLEWS) that formally brings together human and veterinary public health systems and application of environmental data for study of zoonotic and vector borne diseases. 32  Temporal distribution Temporal data is simply data that represents a state in time. Temporal Data Mining needs time information. For example, any data set containing the events over time can be treated as temporal data. Time is built into ArcGIS Pro, ArcMap, the ArcGIS Runtimes, and portal so the temporal dimension of geospatial data can be used for analysis, simulation, and modeling across the ArcGIS platform. Geoprocessing tools can be used to manage time-aware data and analyze space-time data. An example of temporal data could be NCD costs per state in the county for 1990, 1991, 1992, and so on. In this case, each column contains a value of the medical costs for that state and the given year. 33  Depicting the Spread of a Disease GIS has been extensively used in veterinary epidemiology for the study of different diseases, their etiology, association with ecology, transmission patterns, disease forecasting as well as the role of soil, vegetation types and other environmental factors in disease occurrence. Several viral, bacterial, parasitic and protozoal diseases have been studied to identify their spatial distribution, characteristics, and risk factors such as temperature, soil type, elevation, slope and land use. GIS has been applied to map the spread of Aujeszky’s disease in US; fascioliasis in Brazil; bovine tuberculosis in New Zealand and UK; FMD in France, UK, Brazil and New Zealand; Campylobacteriosis in Sweden; Rift valley fever in US and forecast model for strategic control of fasciolosis in Ehiopia. Integration of epidemiological data with the spatial and ecologic data plays important roles in analysis of variables responsible for disease transmission 34 Disease Mapping and Geographical Information System One of the most useful functions of GIS in epidemiology is its use in disease mapping. When data are collected either routinely or through purposely-designed surveys, they are presented in tabular forms, which can be exploited for analytical usage. However, the reading and interpretation of such tabular data is often a laborious and time- consuming task and does not permit easy decision-making. However, if the collected data is depicted on the map using GIS it will be easily understood by the readers. Disease mapping methods were first used for communicable diseases in an attempt to identify the sources of infection and to describe the rate of spreading of disease. 35 Disease Mapping and Geographical Information System Mapping of chronic diseases started with the recognition that environmental factors play an essential role in their etiology. Geographical epidemiological studies, in which health and environmental exposure data are analyzed in fine geographical detail, represent an important new approach. The aims and purposes of disease mapping are: to describe the spatial variation in disease incidence for the formulation of etiological hypotheses; to identify areas of unusually high risk in order to take preventive action; to provide a reliable map of disease risk in a region to allow better resource allocation and risk assessment. 36 Geographical Information System for Planning of disease Control Strategies GIS technology has many features which make it ideal for use in animal disease control, including: Ability to store information relating to demography and causal factors and disease incidence on a geographical back ground, and a variety of spatial analysis functions. The neighborhood analysis function can be used to identify all adjacent farms to an infected farm. It is a function that identifies all adjacent features with a certain criterion to a particular feature. Contact patterns such as common use of grasslands, watering points or sources of purchasing etc. could be visualized with a so-called spider diagram. This could provide insight into the possibility of transmission of infectious diseases between herds. In the planning of eradication of diseases, GIS has the capability to perform superimpose analysis to find high or low risk areas for diseases which depend on geographical features or conditions related to the geography. For example, previous studies on trypanosomiasis; theileriosis and dengue fever, shows how to use GIS to plan eradication of diseases depending on habitats of vectors or wild animal population.  Emerging and re-emerging diseases Emerging and re-emerging diseases pose a major threat in various parts of the world, partly due to climatic changes, as well as the recent spread of several contagious and vector-borne diseases into new or previously controlled areas. The current capabilities of GIS (especially collection of satellite data with respect to spatio- temporal and spectral resolution) make it appropriate for epidemiological research and mapping vector-borne re-emerging diseases, eg schistosomiasis, leishmaniasis and dirofilariasis. The GIS also help researchers to identify areas having high prevalence and risk groups apart from identifying areas having shortage of resources to make decisions to allocate resources in case of vector borne diseases. As a result, based on the information obtained any responsible authority can plan the best control option. 38 Thanks for listening 39