325-Final Exam Study Guide PDF

325-Final Exam Study Guide Class 8, Chapter 7-8: Social & Group Influence Class 9, Chapter 9: Prejudice Class 10, Chapter 10: Aggression Class 11, Chapter 11: Helping Others Class 12, Chapter 12: Attraction Chapter 7-8: Social & Group Influence 7) SOCIAL...

325-Final Exam Study Guide Class 8, Chapter 7-8: Social & Group Influence Class 9, Chapter 9: Prejudice Class 10, Chapter 10: Aggression Class 11, Chapter 11: Helping Others Class 12, Chapter 12: Attraction Chapter 7-8: Social & Group Influence 7) SOCIAL INFLUENCE Social Influence Overview Focus shifts from message influence (persuasion) to how real/imagined social pressure changes behavior Three main types of conformity: acceptance, compliance, and obedience Understanding Conformity Cultural perspectives: ○ Western (individualistic) cultures often view conformity negatively ○ Eastern (collectivistic) cultures tend to view it positively Can be both beneficial and detrimental: ○ Negative: Peer pressure leading to harmful behaviors ○ Positive: Maintains social order (e.g., queuing in lines) ○ Neutral: Following dress codes Types of Conformity 1. Acceptance Public and private agreement with behavior Informational influence: Conforming because we believe others know better  Example: Sherif's autokinetic effect study ○ Participants judged movement of stationary light in dark room ○ In groups, judgments converged to collective norm ○ Demonstrated emergence of social norms 2. Compliance Public agreement but private disagreement Normative influence: Conforming to be accepted by others Key study: Asch's line judgment task ○ 76% conformed at least once despite obvious correct answer ○ 33% conformed in 8-12 of 12 trials Obedience Following direct orders from authority Key study: Milgram's shock experiments ○ 65% of participants administered maximum voltage ○ Demonstrated power of authority figures Factors affecting obedience: ○ Proximity of authority figure ○ Presence of dissenting others ○ Legitimacy of authority Factors Influencing Conformity Unanimity of group Group cohesion Individual differences (e.g., self-monitoring) Situational factors Cultural context Nonconformity Psychological Reactance Theory (PRT) ○ Response to threatened freedoms ○ Components: freedom presence, threat/elimination, arousal, restoration Need for Uniqueness (NfU) ○ Desire to differentiate from majority  ○ Can be trait-based or situationally triggered 8) Group Influence Key Concepts Group: Two or more people who interact, are interdependent, and influence one another.  Group Influence: The impact groups have on individual attitudes, behavior, and decision-making. Section 8.1: The What and Why of Groups 1. What Constitutes a Group: ○ Groups require interdependence, interaction, and mutual influence. ○ Examples: Not Groups: Individuals at a bus stop, passive church attendees. Groups: Families, interactive fan clubs, structured online courses. 2. Importance of Groups: ○ Conditioning Perspective: Positive outcomes from early group membership (e.g., family support). ○ Social Comparison Theory (Festinger): Groups provide a framework for self-assessment and understanding social norms. ○ Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner): Self-concept shaped by group membership. ○ Sociobiological Perspective (Bowlby): Groups enhance survival through cooperation and protection. Section 8.2: The Presence of Others & Its Impact 1. Social Facilitation (Zajonc): ○ Presence of others increases arousal: Improves performance on dominant (easy) tasks. Hinders performance on non-dominant (difficult) tasks. 2. Social Loafing: ○ Reduced individual effort in group tasks.  ○ Factors: Larger groups reduce individual accountability. Stronger in individualistic cultures and men. ○ Reducing Social Loafing: Make individual contributions identifiable. Assign tasks meaningful to the group. 3. Deindividuation: ○ Loss of self-awareness and accountability in groups. ○ Classic Theory: Conditions: Anonymity, arousal, lack of structure. Behaviors: Antisocial acts (e.g., Halloween candy study). ○ SIDE Model: Group norms (prosocial or antisocial) guide behavior in deindividuated states. Section 8.3: Groups That Interact 1. Groupthink (Janis): ○ Definition: Poor decision-making due to group pressures. ○ Antecedents: Directive leadership, group cohesion, unanimity pressure. ○ Outcomes: Suppressed dissent, biased decisions (e.g., Pearl Harbor). ○ Critiques: Limited empirical support; suggested revisions include accounting for political motivations. 2. Group Polarization: ○ Definition: Group discussions amplify pre-existing attitudes. ○ Mechanisms: Informational Influence: Shared arguments strengthen beliefs. Normative Influence: Desire for social approval drives extremity. ○ Examples:  French students became more nationalistic post-discussion. Political groups grow more polarized over time. Practical Implications Social Attention: Subtle cues (e.g., surveillance) can increase prosocial behavior. Combating Polarization: ○ Engage with diverse perspectives. ○ Promote bipartisan collaboration.  Chapter 9: Prejudice Core Attitude Components Toward Groups Prejudice (Affective Component): ○ Negative emotions/feelings toward a group without action ○ Internal feelings like dislike, fear, or hatred Discrimination (Behavioral Component): ○ Actions that disadvantage others based on group membership ○ Examples: Unfair hiring, service denial, exclusion Stereotypes (Cognitive Component): ○ Mental shortcuts/beliefs about group characteristics ○ Can be positive ("elderly are wise") or negative ("teenagers are lazy") Stereotype Threat Anxiety when aware of negative stereotypes about one's group Can decrease performance and create self-fulfilling prophecy Key Study - Steele & Aronson (1995): ○ Black students performed worse when test labeled as intelligence measure ○ Performed equally when framed as problem-solving task Attitudes and Awareness Explicit Attitudes: ○ Conscious, known beliefs and feelings ○ Can be clearly expressed Implicit Attitudes: ○ Unconscious biases affecting behavior ○ Measured through Implicit Association Test (IAT)  Forms of Prejudice and Discrimination Racism Types: ○ Old-Fashioned: Direct belief in racial superiority ○ Modern: Appears only when socially acceptable ○ Aversive: Unconscious bias with conscious denial ○ Symbolic: Negative views combined with individualistic values Other Forms: ○ Sexism: Sex/gender-based treatment and harassment ○ Ageism: Age-based discrimination (ADEA protects 40+) ○ Weight Discrimination: Bias in workplace, healthcare, social settings ○ Disability Discrimination: Treatment based on actual/perceived disabilities Stigma Categories Public Stigma: Society's negative stereotypes Self-Stigma: Internalization of negative stereotypes Label Avoidance: Avoiding help to prevent labeling Courtesy Stigma: Affects those associated with stigmatized individuals Theoretical Explanations Social Identity Theory: ○ In-group/out-group categorization ○ In-group favoritism ○ Out-group homogeneity effect Attribution Theory: ○ Fundamental Attribution Error ○ Group-Serving Bias Other Theories: ○ Realistic Group Conflict Theory: Resource competition ○ System Justification Theory: Status quo defense  Reduction Strategies Intergroup Contact Theory requirements: ○ Equal status ○ Common goals ○ Intergroup cooperation ○ Institutional support Teaching Tolerance: ○ Promotes respect/acceptance ○ Requires ongoing effort and early education Jigsaw Classroom: ○ Cooperative learning technique ○ Creates positive interdependence  Chapter 9: Aggression Aggression Fundamentals Definition: Any behavior intended to harm another person, physically or verbally Four main types: ○ Instrumental Aggression: Goal-oriented harm (e.g., taking toy from another child) ○ Hostile Aggression: Direct intent to harm, often from anger ○ Relational Aggression: Damaging relationships through social means ○ Cyberbullying: Using technology for harassment/harm (15.5% high school, 24% middle school students affected) Forms of Aggressive Behavior Crime: ○ Cybercrimes and computer intrusions ○ Public corruption and civil rights violations ○ Organized crime ○ White-collar crime ○ Violent crime Workplace Violence: ○ From threats to physical assaults ○ 23 million American workers affected annually ○ Includes worker-on-worker, customer/client violence ○ Personal relationship violence at work Domestic Violence:  Systematic pattern of power/control 1 in 4 women, 1 in 9 men experience severe forms Includes physical, emotional, financial abuse Sexual Violence/Harassment: 81% of women and 43% of men report experiencing it Includes unwanted advances, requests for sexual favors Often involves power dynamics School Violence: Occurs on school property and during school events Includes bullying, physical violence Higher risk during transition times Dispositional Factors (Internal) Biological Mechanisms: ○ Brain Areas: Amygdala and hypothalamus involvement ○ Hormones: Testosterone's role in aggressive behavior ○ Genetics: 50-80% heritability for aggressive behaviors Personality Factors: ○ Dark Triad: Narcissism: Self-focus, low empathy Machiavellianism: Manipulation tendency Psychopathy: Callousness, poor self-control ○ Hostile Attribution Bias: Perceiving neutral actions as hostile ○ Rumination: Dwelling on provocations increases aggression ○ Arousal: Can intensify aggressive responses Situational Factors (External) Environmental Influences: ○ Alcohol consumption (factor in 19-37% of violent crimes)  ○ Media violence exposure ○ Temperature effects ○ Crowding conditions Social/Cultural Factors: ○ Culture of honor (especially in Southern U.S.) ○ Social rejection ○ Frustration-aggression relationship ○ Learning through observation ○ Social norms and expectations Methods to Reduce Aggression Prevention Strategies: ○ Clear rules and consequences ○ Positive environment creation ○ Increased supervision ○ Anonymous reporting systems ○ Community involvement Intervention Approaches: ○ Self-distancing techniques ○ Proper punishment application ○ Cognitive-behavioral approaches ○ Social skills training ○ Media exposure regulation ○ Emphasis on non-violent conflict resolution  Chapter 10: Helping Others Core Definitions: Prosocial behavior: Voluntary actions to help others without coercion Altruistic behavior: Helping with no expectation of reward/recognition Egotistical behavior: Self-centered actions focused on personal benefit, indifferent to others' needs Evolutionary Foundations: 1. Kin Selection: Helping genetic relatives to pass on shared genes Example: Parental sacrifice for children Associated with empathy and attachment traits Related to high agreeableness, low emotional stability 2. Reciprocal Altruism: Helping non-relatives expecting future reciprocation Example: Helping neighbors, expecting future assistance Associated with forgiveness and non-retaliation Related to high agreeableness and high emotional stability Dispositional Factors: 1. Personal Responsibility: Higher helping when sole responsibility is felt Example: Helping on deserted road Inversely related to number of bystanders present 2. Time Pressure: Being rushed decreases helping behavior Reference: Batson's "Good Samaritan Study" (1978) Represents cost of motivated behavior 3. Self-Conscious Emotions: Embarrassment: Can prevent helping (e.g., lacking skills to help) Guilt: Can motivate helping behavior Most effective when obligation is stressed 4. Religiosity: Intrinsic Orientation: Planned helping/volunteering Quest Orientation: Spontaneous helping Extrinsic Orientation:  Helping for social gain Mixed evidence on religion's overall influence Cultural differences may account for variations 5. Mood Effects: Positive mood increases helping Pleasant environmental factors (e.g., smells) increase helping Negative-State Relief Model: Helping to improve own mood Need for approval can influence helping 6. Gender Differences: Men: Heroic/chivalrous helping Women: Nurturing/relational helping Influenced by: ○ Social expectations ○ Division of labor ○ Hormones ○ Individual traits 7. Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis: Different from sympathy (feeling sorry for others) Empathy leads to pure altruistic helping Supported by Toi & Batson's 1982 study High empathy leads to helping regardless of escape ease Situational Factors: 1. Bystander Effect: Less helping with more bystanders present Example: Kitty Genovese case (1964) Influenced by diffusion of responsibility 2. Emergency Characteristics (Shotland & Huston, 1979): Sudden occurrence Clear threat of harm Increasing harm if no intervention Victim cannot self-help No easy solution available 3. Decision-Making Process: Notice event Interpret as emergency Assume responsibility Know how to help Implement help 4. Important Concepts: Pluralistic ignorance: Assuming nothing wrong when others seem unconcerned Audience inhibition: Fear of looking foolish Reluctant altruism: Peer pressure to help Diffusion of responsibility: ○ 10 people: 10% responsibility each ○ 2 people: 50% responsibility each  ○ Alone: 100% responsibility 5. Urban Overload Hypothesis (Milgram, 1970): High urban stimulation causes overload Reduces likelihood of noticing emergencies Affects perception of city and residents Cultural Influences: Collectivist cultures: ○ Stronger focus on helping within in-group ○ More interdependent view of self Individualistic cultures: ○ More emphasis on individual choice ○ Independent view of self Both show in-group preference Cultural differences influence helping norms Ways to Increase Helping: 1. Modeling: Observing others helping increases prosocial behavior Particularly effective in child development 2. Volunteering Motivations (Clary & Snyder, 1999): Values: Acting on humanitarian beliefs Understanding: Gaining new skills Enhancement: Personal growth Career: Building experience Social: Strengthening relationships Protective: Reducing guilt/escaping problems  Chapter 11: Attraction 1. Core Concepts: Interpersonal Attraction: Preference for others that influences social choices Need for Affiliation: Connections with acquaintances Need for Belonging: Deeper emotional bonds Self-disclosure: Sharing personal information to build intimacy 2. Development of Social Bonds: Smiling Development: ○ Begins 6-9 weeks after birth ○ Initially indiscriminate ○ Develops into social smiles ○ Related to stranger anxiety after 6 months Play Development: ○ Solitary Play: Up to 1.5 years ○ Parallel Play: 1.5-2 years ○ Associative Play: Sharing/borrowing ○ Cooperative Play: Around 3 years ○ Onlooker Play: Observing before joining 3. Attachment Styles (Ainsworth): Secure: Uses caregiver as safe base for exploration Avoidant: Avoids closeness and comfort-seeking Ambivalent: Shows mixed positive/negative emotions Disorganized-Disoriented: Displays confused, contradictory behaviors 4. Loneliness and Social Rejection: Types: ○ Situational: From conflicts or negative events  ○ Developmental: Poor balance between independence/connection ○ Internal: Based in low self-esteem/poor coping Health Impact: ○ Increases mortality risk by 26% ○ Associated with cardiovascular disease ○ Linked to depression and psychosis ○ Affects inflammation levels 5. Attraction Factors: Proximity: Physical closeness increases interaction likelihood Mere Exposure Effect: Repeated exposure increases liking Physical Attractiveness: ○ Major factor in initial attraction ○ Influenced by halo effect ○ Affects workplace decisions Similarity: ○ Values/beliefs ○ Demographics ○ Educational background ○ Physical attractiveness (matching hypothesis) Reciprocity: Mutual exchange of positive feelings Playing Hard to Get: Most effective when selective Intimacy: Based on trust and appropriate self-disclosure 6. Relationship Types and Theories: Types: ○ Communal: Mutual responsiveness to needs ○ Exchange: Based on reciprocity expectations ○ Intimate/Romantic: Strong attraction to personality and physical features Theories: ○ Social Exchange Theory: Balances rewards vs. costs  ○ Equity Theory: Emphasizes fairness in contributions 7. Love and Attraction: Sternberg's Triangular Theory: ○ Intimacy: Emotional connection ○ Passion: Physical/romantic attraction ○ Commitment: Long-term decision to maintain relationship 8. Mate Selection (Evolutionary Perspective): Male Strategy: ○ Favor fertility signs ○ Prefer younger partners (2.7 years younger) ○ Value physical attractiveness ○ Seek sexual faithfulness Female Strategy: ○ Favor financial stability ○ Prefer older partners (3.4 years older) ○ More selective due to limited reproduction capacity ○ Focus on resource availability 9. Relationship Challenges: Jealousy: ○ Negative emotional state from perceived threats ○ Women: More concerned with emotional infidelity ○ Men: More concerned with sexual infidelity ○ Serves evolutionary purpose in maintaining bonds Gottman's Four Horsemen: ○ Criticism: Character attacks (Antidote: "I" statements) ○ Contempt: Disrespect (Antidote: Build appreciation) ○ Defensiveness: Excuse-making (Antidote: Accept responsibility) ○ Stonewalling: Withdrawal (Antidote: Self-soothing) 10. Forgiveness: Benefits: ○ Better mental health ○ Reduced anxiety ○ Improved relationships Process: ○ Recognize value ○ Identify healing needs ○ Process emotions ○ Move beyond victimhood