2nd Class - Basic Notes PDF

Test 1 is Wednesday, Oct 9th at 1:00 to 2:20 pm. ★ 62 Multiple-choice questions: ○ Chapter 1: 21 ○ Chapter 2: 30 ○ Chapter 3: 9 2nd class - basic nates ★ Menarche: First period - varies; in Africa its 14-17 & America its 12-13 ★...

Test 1 is Wednesday, Oct 9th at 1:00 to 2:20 pm. ★ 62 Multiple-choice questions: ○ Chapter 1: 21 ○ Chapter 2: 30 ○ Chapter 3: 9 2nd class - basic nates ★ Menarche: First period - varies; in Africa its 14-17 & America its 12-13 ★ Endocrine system: It produces, circulates, and regulates hormone levels in the body. ○ Hormones: Specialized substances secreted by endocrine glands ○ Glands: Organs that stimulate particular parts of the body to respond in specific ways ○ Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons: Neurons in the brain that play important roles at puberty. Ex. Hormonal feedback loop (HPG axis) ○ Set point: (e.g., thermostat) “The endocrine system functions like a thermostat, maintaining hormonal levels at a specific set point through a feedback loop. This feedback loop, called the HPG axis (hypothalamus, pituitary, gonads), is important in puberty. ★ The endocrin system EXPLAINED IN SIMPLE WORDS: HPG (Hypothalamus - Pituary gland - gonads - sex hormones - endrogens & estrogens) ○ The hypothalamus monitors levels of sex hormones to maintain the corect set point. Hypothalamus is right in the centre of the brain. Controls many different systems in the body from thirst, hunger, etc., hence why its in the centre of the brain. The hypothalamus is like the president, it needs to be protected. ○ The hormones will tell the hypothalamus a message that the hormones in the body are changing. These hormones are endrogren & estrogen, all biological males & females have it in the body. ○ The pirtuary gland: main gland that we’re concerned about regarding puberty. It’s the head of all glands in the body. The pituary gland is like the chief of the military. ○ The hypothsalamus will send a message to the pituary gland & tell it that it needs to start puberty, cause there is isnt enough hormones. ○ The pituary glands will send the message to the gonands; testies (males) or ovaries (females) ○ So now the testies and ovaries are relasing hormones & will target specific areas; growth of breast, pubic hair, emotions, etc.  ○ The goal of puberty is to reproduce, so now the message is sent to the hypothalamus that either the girl has started her menstruation, etc. ○ Set point: Thermostat aka controlling your temperature. In body terms, that is the thalamus. So if the doors open, and heat comes in, then in terms of body, the thalamus will tell the pituary gland to take care of it. In this case, the pituary gland would turn on the cooling. But they can also turn on the heating. ★ Adrenarche: Just before puberty, early sexual feelings may be stimulated by maturation of the adrenal glands, called adrenarche. ○ The maturation of the adrenal gland that takes place during adolescence. ○ Changes in the brain system regulate the adrenal gland, which is also the system that controls how we respond to stress. ○ Cortisol: A hormone that is produced when a person is exposed to stress. It increases the size of your pupils, heightens your senses, heartbeat goes higher. ★ What triggers Puberty? ○ Your genes ○ Hormonal clock: A part of the HPG axis which involves the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and gonads, which work together to regulate sex hormones like androgens and estrogens ○ Kisspeptin and its Regulators: The initiation of puberty is specifically attributed to an increase in a brain chemical called kisspeptin.However, the levels of kisspeptin are influenced by: Leptin: A protein produced by fat cells that signals the brain about the body's energy stores. Higher levels of leptin, often associated with higher body fat, can stimulate kisspeptin production. This explains why puberty tends to begin earlier in overweight children.56 Melatonin: A hormone that regulates sleep cycles and is affected by light exposure. Darkness promotes melatonin production, which can suppress kisspeptin. Conversely, greater exposure to light, particularly artificial light, can lead to lower melatonin levels and potentially earlier puberty ○ Environemental factors: Nutrition & health ○ Etc. ★ Somatic Development During Puberty: Somatic development refers to the physical changes that occur during puberty, transforming a child's body into a young adult's physique. These changes are primarily driven by hormonal shifts regulated by the endocrine system, a topic discussed in our conversation history. The sources highlight four key aspects of somatic development: ○ Rapid Acceleration in Growth: Puberty is marked by a growth spurt, resulting in significant increases in height and weight. This growth spurt typically lasts 2-3 years and is more pronounced in girls, who begin puberty earlier than boys. On average, adolescents grow about 10 inches taller during puberty and develop an adult-proportioned body.  ○ Development of Primary Sex Characteristics: This refers to changes in the gonads (testes in males, ovaries in females). The gonads are responsible for producing sex hormones, which increase significantly during puberty. In boys, the testes begin to produce sperm, and the penis and scrotum enlarge. In girls, the ovaries begin to release mature eggs, and the uterus and vagina increase in size. ○ Development of Secondary Sex Characteristics: These changes are more visible and signify sexual maturation. In boys, these include the growth of facial and body hair, deepening of the voice due to an enlarged larynx, and changes in the texture and appearance of their skin. In girls, these include breast development, growth of body hair (pubic, underarm), and changes in the texture and appearance of their skin. ○ The development of these characteristics is categorized into five stages known as Tanner stages. These stages, developed by Dr. James Tanner, provide a standardized system for assessing and tracking the progression of pubertal development. ○ Changes in Brain Anatomy and Activity: As discussed in our conversation about the endocrine system, hormones like testosterone and estrogen, whose levels increase during puberty, have significant effects on brain development. These effects extend beyond the regulation of sexual behavior and influence various cognitive and emotional processes. ★ THE ADOLESCENT GROWTH SPURT: The simultaneous release of growth hormones, thyroid hormones, and androgens which leads to the rapid gains in height and weight. ○ Adolescent growth spurt: The dramatic increase in height and weight that occurs during puberty ○ Peak height velocity: The point at when the adolescent is growing most rapidly ○ Epiphysis: The closing of the ends of the bones, which terminates growth after the adolescent growth spurt has been completed, OR “Puberty involves a rapid acceleration in growth, known as the adolescent growth spurt. During this period, adolescents experience a significant increase in height, growing at a rate comparable to that of toddlers. This growth occurs until the process of epiphysis takes place, effectively “closing” the growth plates at the ends of long bones and preventing further increases in height. ★ End of puberty: Boys’ muscle-to-fat ratio is 3 to 1; girls’ ratio is 5 to 4. ○ Rapid gain in fat frequently prompts girls to become overly concerned about their weight. ○ Girls most susceptible to feelings of body dissatisfaction with their bodies are those who mature early and begin dating early. ★ Tanner stages. 5 stages developed by Dr. James Tanner, provide a standardized system for assessing and tracking the progression of pubertal development.  ○ For girls: Around 7-13 is the growth of breasts Around 7-14 is pubic hair Around 9-14 is body hair Around 10-16 is menarche Breasts / penis & scortum (practically similar in development) * Stage 1: No development. * Stage 2: There is slight development; some tissue & the areola might be enlarged * Stage 3: Breasts are more distinct; however no separation between the two * Stage 4: Breasts are enlarged; there is more contour between the breasts. The nipple & areola form a secondary mound on the breast * Stage 5: Size may vary; breasts are fully developed / contours are distinct & the areola has receded into the general contour of the breast. Pubic hair: * Stage 1: No pubic hair * Stage 2: Slight hair on the vaginal lips * Stage 3: Hair is darker, coraser & curlier * Stage 4: Hair is adult type but the area covered is small, no hair on the inside of the thighs. * Stage 5: Hair is an adult; looks like a triangle; may be hair on the inside of the thighs. ○ For boys: Around 10-13 is the growth of the testes, growth of the scrotal sac Around 10-15 is pubic hair Around 10-16 is body growth Around 11-14 is growth of penis ★ Ethnic differences exist in the timing and rate of pubertal maturation: ○ Black females mature (first); Mexican American females (second); white females (third). ○ Nonwhite girls may be exposed more often to chemicals that stimulate earlier puberty. ★ Researchers who study variability in onset and timing of puberty use two approaches: ○ Study of differences among individuals ○ Study of differences among groups of adolescents **Both types of studies point to both genetic and environmental factors ★ Pheromones: A class of chemicals secreted by animals that stimulate certain behaviors in other members of the species ○ Father absent families ○ Conflict-ridden households ○ Having a step-father ○ Sexual abuse ★ Secular trend: It’s how newer generations reach puberty earlier than previous generations due to the improvements in nutrition, and health. For example, the age of menerache (first period) has signigicsantly declined over the years from 17 to 14, and to 12, and even 11 in some people. ★ Studies used to understand the physiological, and social impact of puberty ○ Cross-sectional study: A study that compares two or more groups of individuals at one point in time ○ Longitudinal study: A study that follows the same group of individuals over time ★ Impact of puberty: ○ Maturing early may be stressful ○ Going through puberty “on time” is generally not stressful ○ Pubterty affects the brain in ways that it becomes more vulnerable to stress ○ Puberty make the brain more “plastic.” ○ Plasticity: The capacity of the brain to change in response to experience ★ Sleep deprivation ○ Many teenagers go to sleep late during the evening, and sleep late in the morning. ○ Environmental factors: Internet, television, electronic media, etc. ○ Early school ○ Due to sleep deprivation or an unbalanced sleep schedule, it can lead to: Depression Alchol, tobacco, or drug use Obesity Cognitive impairment Delinquincy The kids will try to catch up on everything they’re behind on, which only makes things worse in the long run. Not only that but school & extracurricular activities are keeping kids too busy which is also a key point in their sleep deprivation ★ Increased conflicts with family/friends ○ Hormones ○ Physical appearance ○ Psychological functioning ★ Puberty reactions ○ Menerache Less negative to a girl getting her 1st period compared to the past Might have to do with girls gaining more information about periods Links between the negative attitudes and menstrual discomfort ○ Ejaculations Less is known about a boy’s first ejaculation Usually not discussed by boys Links in cultural differences & views regarding masturbation ★ Pseudomaturity is a pattern of behavior observed in some adolescents, particularly those who experience early puberty, where they exhibit behaviors and attitudes typically associated with older individuals ○ Desire to appear older  ○ Association with older peers: Shared interests, a sense of belonging, and a desire to fit it. ○ Decreased school engagement ★ Early vs. late maturation between boys ○ Pros Popularity Better self-esteem ○ Cons Boys who are more *physically* mature than other boys are left mostly unsupervised which can lead to a greater increase in – drug & alchol use, delinquiency, and unsafe sexual activity Greater impact of victimization/being bullied Possible elevated rates of depression & anxiety More intense tantrums & depression during puberty ★ Early vs. late maturation between girls ○ Girls have it totally different ○ Cons Poorer self-image Higher rates of depression, eating disorder, and panic attacks More often victims of rumours, gossip, and sexual harassement ○ The only pro for girls is popularity ○ Theories explaining why early maturation is harder on girls than boys “Maturational deviance” hypothesis “Developmental readiness” hypothesis Cultural emphasis on desirability of thinness for females ★ Basal Metabolic Rate or BMR ○ BMR refers to the “lowest” amount of energy the body uses while your resting. In simpler terms, it’s the energy your body uses just to maintain essential functions like breathing, circulation, and cell production, even when you’re not actively doing anything like sleeping. ○ The BMR increases during puberty due to the body growing at a rapid speed. ★ Body Mass Index or BMI ○ Used to calculate an individual’s body fat, the ration of weight to height & to figure out what is considered overweight or obesity ○ You can determine BMI by dividing a person’s weight by their height squared Fact: Its more prevalent among young black women ★ Causes of obseity: ○ Genetic & environmental factors ○ Neurological factors: Poorer impulse control, heightened responses to food ○ Too-much high calorie food, low-fiber food ○ Low activity levels ○ Obesity is more common in Black, Latinx & Native American Adolescents ★ Preventions & treating obesity ○ Parents ○ Mass media ○ Food & beverage manufacturers  ○ Restaurants ○ Schools ○ Communities ★ Disordered eating: Mild, moderate, or severe disturbance in eating habits and attitudes ○ 1 in 4 adolescents are actually happy with their bodies ○ Studies & magazines reveal consistent messages that girls & women must be slim to be beautiful ★ Anorexia nervosa: ○ An eating disorder found chiefly among young women, characterized by dramatic and severe self-induced weight loss Consistent levels of heritability throughout cultures (meaning you can inherit from your parent/s, and all the research points towards it too) Increased over the years Can be seen throughout the entire world ★ Bulimia: ○ An eating disorder found primarily among young women, characterized by a pattern of binge eating and extreme weight loss measures, including self-induced vomiting Mainly seen in Western culture Has declined over the years ★ Binge eating disorder: An eating disorder characterized by a pattern of binge eating that is not accompanied by drastic attempts to lose weight ○ Only 1% of women develop anorexia, 1.5% of women develop bulimia, and 3.5% of women develop binge eating disorder. ○ Bulimia and anorexia are three times as common in females as in males. ○ Binge eating is about twice as prevalent among females ★ ** Eating disorders are more like an “internalized distress;” a range of mental and emotional difficulties that individuals experience internally (meaning a war between your mental health, your emotions against your body). ★ Cognition = refers to “thinking.” ○ Thinking about possibilities Compared to children, who tend to focus on what is concrete and real, adolescents become better at considering hypothetical situations and exploring various possibilities. Being able to plan ahead, see future consequences of an action, etc. This shift allows them to engage in more complex problem-solving and decision-making ; example math & science ○ Think about abstract concepts Adolescence marks a transition from concrete to abstract thinking. While children's thinking is grounded in observable events, adolescents can grasp abstract concepts like friendship, democracy, and morality. This ability  underpins their capacity for more advanced social thinking and moral reasoning ○ Think about thinking (metacognition): Metacognition: The process of thinking about thinking itself Adolescents develop metacognitive skills, meaning they become more aware of their own thinking processes. They can monitor their learning, assess how well they understand information, and adjust their study strategies accordingly Increased introspection: thinking about our own emotions Increased self-consciousness: thinking about how others think about us ** Adolescent Egocentrism: Extreme self-absorption (as described by David Elkind). Sometimes results in two types of problems for adolescents Imaginary audience: The belief, often brought on by the heightened self-consciousness of early adolescence, that everyone is watching and evaluating one’s behavior Personal fable: Adolescents’ belief that they are unique and therefore not subject to the rules that govern other people’s behavior Can cause the dangerous belief that nothing bad can happen to them because they are special ○ Think in multiple dimensions Children often approach situations with a one-dimensional perspective, considering only one aspect at a time. In contrast, adolescents can juggle multiple perspectives and factors simultaneously, enabling them to handle more complex and nuanced situations This gives teens the ability to understand enjoy sarcasm ○ See things as relative and not as absolute (relativism) As adolescents develop their cognitive abilities, they begin to question absolute truths and recognize that perspectives can vary. This shift from seeing the world in black and white to understanding its shades of gray contributes to their growing sense of autonomy and their capacity for critical thinking Can be a bit troublesome when they begin to see their parents values/beliefs as relative ★ Theoritical perspectives on adolescent thinking ○ The Piagetian view Cognitive-developmental view: A perscpetice based on the work of Piaget that takes a qualitative, stage-theory approach. It includes 4 stages Sensorimotor period: 1st stage of cognitive development. Betw. Birth - 2 years of age Preoperarional period: 2nd stage of cognitive development. Betw. ages 2-5. Concrete operations: 3rd stage of cognitive development. Betw. roughly age 6 - early adolescence  Formal operations: 4th stage of cognitive development. Betw. the period of early adolescence through adulthood. Abstract system of logical reasoning Main features that differentiates adolescent thinning from that of children A system of thinking that works in real-life and hypothetical situations Competence and performance: Important to differentiate between what can be done and what people usually do in daily life Everyday decision making marred by many errors in logic The Piagetian view is not as influential as it used to be Research doesn’t support the following points Cognitive development proceeds in a stage-like fashion There is a uniquely adolescent stage of thinking ○ Information processing: Perspective on cognition that derives from the study of artificial intelligence and attempts to explain cognitive development in terms of specific components of the thinking process (meaning: it aims to pinpoint the specific mental abilities that improve as individuals transition from childhood to adolescence. Focused on 4 areas in which improvement occurs during adolescence Attention ○ Selective attention: The process by which we focus on one thing while tuning out another ○ Divided attention: The process of paying attention to 2 or mor different things at the same time Memory ○ Working memory: That aspect of memory in which information is held for a short time while a problem is being solved ○ Long-term memory: The ability to reval something long ago ○ Autobiographical memory: The recall of personally meaningful events ○ Reminiscence bump: The fact that erpeciences from adolescence are generally recalled more than experiences from other stages of life Processing speed ○ Adolescents gain the ability to process the information needed to solve problems faster ○ The biggest increase in speed occurs in early adolescence Organization ○ Adolescents improve in their ability to use organizational strategies when approaching problems ○ With age, individual’s strategies become increasingly efficient. ★ Is cognitive development complete by age 15? ○ They are as proficient as adults in basic cognitive skills but their advanced abilities may not be complete until at least their mid-20’s ★ Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) ○ A technique used to produce images of the brain, often while the subject performing some sort of mental task ★ Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) ○ A technique used to produce images of the brain that shows connections among different regions ★ Brain structure: ○ Physical form & organization of the brain ★ Brain function: ○ Patterns of brain activity ★ Electroencephalography (EEG) ○ Technique for measuring electral activity at different location on the scalp ★ Event-related potentials (ERPs) ○ Changes in electrical activity in areas of the brain in response to specific stimuli or events ★ Other somewhat important stuff: ○ Male brain are about 10% larger than female brains ★ How does a brain work? ○ Neurons: Nerve cells Each neuron has 3 parts; a cell body, a lonngish projection called an axon, & thousand of tiny antenna-like branched dendrites ○ Synapse: The gap in space between neurons, across which neurotransmitters carry electrical impulses ○ Neurotransmitters: Specialized chemicals that carry electrical impuluses between neurons ○ Synaptic pruning: Process through which unnecessary connection between neurons are eliminated improving sending of information processing This process begins soon after birth Synaptic pruning make the brain work better ○ Myelination: Process which the brain circuits are insulated with myeline, which improves the efficiency of information processing ○ Plasticity: The capacity of the brain to change in response to experience Delveopmental plasticity: Remodelin of the brain’s circuity in response to experiences during childhood and adolescence, while the brain is still maturing Adult plasticity: Minor changes in brain circuits as result of experiences during adulthood, after the brain has matured A brain with plasticity learns new skills and languages more easily ★ Prefrontal cortex: ○ Region of the brain which is most important for thinkings abilities such as planning, thinking ahead, weighing risks and rewards, and controlling impulses  Response inhibition:The suppression of behaviour that is inappropriate or no longer required Executive function: More advanced thinking abilities, enabled by the maturing of the prefrontal cortex, especially in early teens ★ Limbic system: An area of the brain that plays an important role in the processing of emotional experience, social information, and reward and punishment ★ Functional connectivity: The extent to which multiple brain regions function at the same time, which improves during adolescence ★ Risk & reward: ○ Dopamine: A neurotransmitter especially important in the brain circuits that regulate the experience of reward ○ Serotonin: A neurotransmitter that important for the experience of different moods ★ IQ = intelligence quotient ○ A score of 100 is average ★ Lev Vygotsky’s theory ○ Zone of proximal development: The level of challenges that is still within the individual’s reach but that forces an individual to develop more advanced skills ○ Scaffolding: Structuring a learning situation so that it is just whitin the reach of the student ★ Social cognition: ○ Cognition that concerns thinking about other people, interpersonal relationships & social institutions ○ ★ Behavioral decision theory: Understandin adolescent risk-taking.. ○ 1. Identifying alternative choices ○ 2. Identifying possible consequences of each choice ○ 3. Evaluating costs and benefits of each consequence ○ 4. Assessing likelihood of each consequence ○ 5. Combining all this information to make a decision ★ Sensation seeking: Pursuit of experiences that are novel ★ Statutory rape: Sex between 2 inidivudals, even when it is consensual, when at least one of the persons is below the legal age of consent. ★ Social redefinition: Process which through an individual’s position or status is re-defined by society ★ Age of majority: The age at which an individual is recognized as an adult ★ Inventionists: Theorists who argue that the period of adolescence is mainy a social invention ★ Child proctectionists: Individuals who argued early in the 20th century, that adolescents needed to be kept out the labour force to protect them from the hazards of the workplace ★ Teenager = 13 -19 ★ Youth = 18 - 22 ★ Intitiation ceremony: The formal induction of a young person in adulthood ★ Status offense: A violation of the law that pertains to minors but not adults ★ Juvenile justice system: A separate system of courts & related institutions for younger individuals ★ Criminal justice system: System of courts to handle “adult” crime ★ Cohort: A groupd of individuals born during hte same general historica era ★ Quinceanera: An elaborate sort of “coming out” celebration for adolescent girls that is practiced in many Latinx communities ★ Bar (Bas) Mitzvah: In Judaism, the religious ceremony marking the young person’s transition to adulthood ★ Sacarification: intentional creation of scars on some parts or parts of the body, often one as part of an intitiaition ceremony. ★ Baby boom: Period following World War 2, during which the number of infants born was extremely large ★ Continuous transitions: Passages into adulthood in which adult roles and statuses are entered into gradually ★ Discontinuous transitions: Passages into adulthood in which adult roles and statuses are entered in abruptly.