Theoretical Course of English Grammar PDF

Theoretical Course of English Grammar Introduction The course consists of four parts. In the first part, we discuss the notion of grammar, its origin, and evolution, as well as its main types. Then we move on to the discussion of the concepts used in modern E...

Theoretical Course of English Grammar Introduction The course consists of four parts. In the first part, we discuss the notion of grammar, its origin, and evolution, as well as its main types. Then we move on to the discussion of the concepts used in modern English grammar. The second and third parts are devoted to the study of morphology and syntax. In morphology, we focus on word formation, parts of speech, and their grammatical categories while in syntax our attention is mainly concentrated on the sentence and its different classifications. We finish the course of lectures with a discussion of the text, the main communicative lingual unit of the highest rank. We review its structural types and the grammatical means of text cohesion. Lecture 1 Grammar in the systematic conception of language.  The development of grammar and its types. Language is an essential feature that distinguishes us from other living beings. It is a central part of our lives. We discover our identity as individuals and social beings when we acquire language in childhood. Language is a means of cognition and communication. It enables us to express our ideas and emotions, to think for ourselves or to set control over others. But language is first and foremost a means of transmitting information which helps us cooperate with other people in our community (Widdowson, 1997, p. 4). When you know a language, you can speak and be understood by others who know the same language. Knowledge of a language enables you to combine words to form phrases, and phrases to form sentences. In addition to knowing the words of the language, linguistic knowledge includes rules for their combination to form sentences and make your own judgments. These rules must be limited (finite) in length and number so that they can be stored in our brains. Knowing a language means being able to produce new sentences never spoken before and to understand sentences never heard before. The famous linguist Noam Chomsky refers to this ability as a creative aspect of language use: creativity is a universal property of human language. Speakers of a language can create great literature and all persons who know a language, can and do create or understand an infinite set of new sentences in the process of human discourse. Thus, creativity or the creative aspect of language implies a human ability to create and understand an infinite set of new sentences in the process of human discourse. There is a difference between a person’s linguistic competence and his/her linguistic performance. A person’s linguistic competence implies the knowledge which is necessary to produce sentences of a particular language, while the application of such knowledge in the process of speech-making determines his/her linguistic performance. Speakers with linguistic knowledge can form sentences of any length by joining phrases and words together or adding modifiers to a noun or a verb. For the most part, linguistic knowledge is not a conscious knowledge. The linguistic 2 system with its sounds, structures, meanings, words and rules for putting them all together – is learned subconsciously when language is acquired in childhood, while in adulthood it is learned with awareness, i.e. with great effort. Language is a system of signs. It can function as a means of cognition and communication due to the unity and interaction of its three constituent parts or subsystems. These parts are the phonological system, the lexical system and the grammatical system. 1. The phonological system determines the material (phonetical) appearance of its meaningful units; 2. The lexical system represents the vocabulary and word groups; 3. The grammatical system represents the set of regularities (rules) that determine the formation of utterances (i.e. actualized in speech sentences) in the process of discourse. Each of these three constituent parts of language is studied by a particular linguistic discipline. The sound system is studied by phonology, the vocabulary of words is studied by lexicology and the regulating rules of word and sentence formations are studied by grammar. What is grammar? The word “grammar” derives from Greek and means “art of letters” (gramma = letter). The term “grammar” is used in two meanings. On the one hand, in its wide sense, the term refers to the theory that is constructed by the linguist to describe the speaker’s linguistic competence. On the other hand, in its narrow sense, the term “grammar” refers to the study of morphology (i.e. the rules of word formation, parts of speech and their grammatical categories) and syntax (i.e. the rules of sentence formation). Grammars are of different types. There is a descriptive grammar of language that does not tell you how you should speak or what rules you should know in order to speak. It only describes the rules that are already known. Another type of grammar is prescriptive grammar which attempts to legislate what your grammar should be. From ancient times until the present, “purists” have believed that language change is corruption and that there are certain “correct” forms that all educated people should use in speaking and writing. So, 3 prescriptive grammar tells what rules you should know to speak the standard language. There is also a teaching grammar which is used to learn another language or dialect. Teaching grammar is used in schools to fulfill language requirements. Teaching grammar state explicitly the rules of the language, list the words and their pronunciations and help learn a new language and dialect. In 1957 Noam Chomsky developed a theory of Transformational Grammar, sometimes called Transformational-Generative Grammar (ტრანსფორმაციული წარმომშობი გრამატიკა). This theory made a revolution in the study of language. According to this theory, instead of starting with minimal sounds, people should begin with the kernel (ბირთვული), i.e. elementary sentences, the number of which is limited in any language. Chomsky believed, that by a limited number of kernel sentences and a set of transformational rules, one can generate (create) innumerable syntactic combinations. Each sentence in a language has two levels of representation: a deep structure and a surface structure (თითოეული წინადადება წარმოდგენილია ორ დონეზე: მას აქვს სიღრმისეული სტრუქტურა და ზედაპირული სტრუქტურა). The deep structure represents the core semantic relations of a sentence which are explicated in the surface structure via transformations. Chomsky and his followers formulated transformational rules with the help of which a sentence with a given grammatical structure can be transformed into a sentence with a different grammatical structure but the same essential meaning. For instance, the sentence “John saw Mary”, which is in the active voice, can be transformed into the passive construction “Mary was seen by John.” Transformational grammar laid the foundation for universal grammar. Chomsky believed that there would be considerable similarities between the deep structures of different languages, which are common to all languages. The more languages of the world linguists investigate, the more they discover that these differences are limited. Universal Grammar aims to uncover the principles that characterize all human languages and to reveal the inborn component of the human language faculty that makes language 4 acquisition possible (წარმოაჩინოს ადამიანის თანდაყოლილი უნარი და ნიჭი ენისადმი, რაც შესაძლებლობას აძლევს მას აითვისოს ენა). There are linguistic universals that are connected with all languages. These universal facts are: 1. Wherever humans exist, language exists. 2. There are no “primitive” languages – all languages are equally complex and equally capable of expressing any idea in the universe. The vocabulary of any language can be expanded to include new words for new concepts. 3. All languages change through time. 4. The relationships between the sounds and meanings of spoken languages are for the most part arbitrary, i.e. the material forms or sounds of linguistic signs bear no natural resemblance to their meaning and the link between them is a matter of convention, and conventions differ radically across languages. 5. All human languages use a finite set of discrete sounds that are combined to form meaningful elements or words, which themselves may be combined to form an infinite set of possible sentences. 6. All grammars contain rules of a similar kind for the formation of words and sentences. 7. Every spoken language includes discrete sound segments, that can all be defined by a finite set of sound properties or features. For instance, every spoken language has a class of vowels and a class of consonants. 8. Similar grammatical categories, i.e. parts of speech (for example, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, etc.) are found in all languages. 9. There are universal semantic properties like “male”, “female”, “animate” or “human”, found in every language in the world. 10. Every language has a way of referring to past or future time, a way of negating, forming questions, issuing commands, and so on. Syntactic universals reveal that every language has a way of forming different structural types of sentences. 11. Speakers of all languages are capable of producing and comprehending an infinite set of sentences. 5 12. And finally, any normal child, born anywhere in the world, of any racial, geographical, social or economic heritage, is capable of learning any language to which he or she is exposed. The differences we find among languages cannot be due to biological reasons. Strong evidence for Universal Grammar has been found by Chomsky in the way children acquire language. Children need not be deliberately taught as they are able to learn effortlessly any human language to which they are exposed. By four or five years of age, children have acquired nearly the entire adult grammar. This suggests that children are born with the genetics to learn and use human language, which is part of the Universal Grammar. The last type of grammar, we would like to focus on, is theoretical grammar. The aim of the theoretical grammar of a language is to present a theoretical description of its grammatical system, i.e. scientifically analyze and define main classes of words, so-called parts of speech, and their grammatical categories and study the mechanisms of sentence formation in the process of speech making. Study Questions: 1. What are the main functions of language? 2. What does creativity or a creative aspect of language imply? 3. What’s the difference between a person’s linguistic competence and his/her linguistic performance? 4. How is the knowledge of language acquired in childhood? /in adulthood? 5. What are the three constituent parts (subsystems) of a language system? Define each of them. 6. What’s the origin and the meaning of the word grammar? What is the subject of grammar? Give its two interpretations. 7. What’s the difference between Descriptive and Prescriptive Grammar? 8. What’s the aim of Teaching Grammar? 9. What’s the essence of Chomskian Transformational-Generative Grammar? 10. What’s the aim of Universal Grammar? 11. What’s the aim of Theoretical Grammar? 6