2 Week Exam Notes - Research and Replication History PDF

**EXAM NOTES WEEK 2 RESEARCH AND REPLICATION HISTORY** **History of Social Psychology** - **Aristotle:** Society shapes human development - **Comte:** Its people who cause and are the consequence to society, they are the products and producers of social environment **1879 Wilhelm Wundt**...

**EXAM NOTES WEEK 2 RESEARCH AND REPLICATION HISTORY** **History of Social Psychology** - **Aristotle:** Society shapes human development - **Comte:** Its people who cause and are the consequence to society, they are the products and producers of social environment **1879 Wilhelm Wundt** - First Lab - Separates Psychology from Philosophy and Biology **1898 Norman Triplett** - Started Social Psychology - Wrote first paper - Founded: Social Facilitation Theory **John Dewey:** - In collectivist work, shaping society benefits the masses. **1908 McDougal:** - First Social Psychology textbook **Ross:** - Social Psychology Textbook **1920-1930 Floyd Allport** - Called the father of Social Psychology and Experimental Psychology - Focus on Individual dispositions, not society - Great Depression Research: community ties a protective factor against bad things. **Sumners: AFRICAN AMERICANS IQ TESTS** - Criticised treatment of African Americans - Criticised IQ test Western scale on other cultures - Father of Black Psychology **1930-40s-50s Festinger** - World War 2 - Conformity, obedience and authorities studies - Experimental lab research, controlled conditions - Okay, to trick participants - WWII was hugely significant in shaping the development of social psychology \-- but mainly in the West! During this period, - psychologists became even more interested in applying their understanding of how individuals are influenced to war-related concerns, such as recruiting people into the military. - The events of WWII also inspired research into issues such as conformity and the influence of authority, so that psychologists could understand and help the public to understand why and how people acted in certain ways. - You might also reflect on how WWII impacted the ethics of social psychological research **Global Events Investigated by Social Psychologists Are:** 1. Hyland, P., Vallières, F., Shevlin, M., Karatzias, T., Ben-Ezra, M., McElroy, E., \... & Martsenkovskyi, D. (2023). Psychological consequences of war in Ukraine: assessing changes in mental health among Ukrainian parents. *Psychological Medicine*, 1-3. 2. Wright, C., Gatlin, K., Acosta, D., & Taylor, C. (2023). Portrayals of the Black Lives Matter Movement in Hard and Fake News and Consumer Attitudes Toward African Americans. *Howard Journal of Communications*, *34*(1), 19-41. 3. Schwartz, S. E., Benoit, L., Clayton, S., Parnes, M. F., Swenson, L., & Lowe, S. R. (2023). Climate change anxiety and mental health: Environmental activism as buffer. *Current Psychology*, *42*(20), 16708-16721.  4. Li, A., Baker, E., & Bentley, R. (2022). Understanding the mental health effects of instability in the private rental sector: A longitudinal analysis of a national cohort. *Social Science & Medicine*, *296*, 114778.  5. Miller, S., Menard, P., Bourrie, D., & Sittig, S. (2022). Integrating truth bias and elaboration likelihood to understand how political polarisation impacts disinformation engagement on social media. *Information Systems Journal*. 6. Prentice, C., Quach, S., & Thaichon, P. (2022). Antecedents and consequences of panic buying: The case of COVID‐19. *International Journal of Consumer Studies*, *46*(1), 132-146. 7. Branje, S., & Morris, A. S. (2021). The impact of the COVID‐19 pandemic on adolescent emotional, social, and academic adjustment. *Journal of Research on Adolescence*, *31*(3), 486-499. 8. Schneider, K. T., & Carpenter, N. J. (2020). Sharing\# MeToo on Twitter: Incidents, coping responses, and social reactions. *Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal*, *39*(1), 87-100. 9. Manners, I. (2018). Political psychology of European integration: The (re) production of identity and difference in the Brexit debate. *Political Psychology*, *39*(6), 1213-1232. **Skinner:** - Behaviourist - Mental States are preconditioned **Cognitive Revolution** - Against behaviourism,, we act because of what we think **Lewin INTERACTIONALISM** - Interactionalism perspective: behaviour and attitudes interact between a person and environment personality + social psychology - Research outside the lab ( field studies ) - Research resistance to propaganda - Worked for the government not people - *[Discovered subjective experience are more impactful than objective experiences]* - *[Government, Military and law enforement]* **1960-70s Big change In Social Psychology** **Milgram:** Prison experiments **Zimbardo:** Obedience simulation **Crisis:** - Questioning whether lab observations apply to real life. - Experiment Ethics: not treating participants ethically **1970-2000s** **Pluralism** - Lab research combined with correlation research - Allowed measurement for more variables and a better measure - Not well controlled - Field studies popular - Inclusion of diverse participants and cultures - Psychology from other cultures - Ethical standards created and adhered too - Re-focus on oppressed groups - Cultures - Informed consent - **Collectivist perspective in psychology** **SOCIAL FACILITATION** ***[The presence of others enhances performance]*** **Norman Triplett** Cyclists were fastest in paced competition races (cycling against other solo riders and a tandem bike setting the pace) **Aerodynamic Theories** - Suction Theory - Shelter Theory **Psychological Theories** - Hypnotism: by the wheels in front for endurance - Encouragement Theory: friends lift your spirit and performance - Brain Worry Theory: Worry if your fast enough increases performance - Automatic Theory: Body of front rider takes the physical force - Dynamogenic Theory: The presence of others arouses competitive instincts **( Social Facilitation )** **Triplett Theories:** - Triplett had a number of different theories as to why cyclists were faster when riding with other people compared to when riding alone. - **Suction theory and shelter theory** were aerodynamic theories related to the rider in front creating a vacuum behind them that sucked other riders forward or shielding other riders from the wind, respectively. - **Hypnotic suggestion theory** said that riders were hypnotised into riding faster and enduring for longer by watching the wheels of the other riders. - **Automatic theory and brain worry theory** suggested that the rider in front or alone had to ride purposefully, thinking about strategy and how fast they were riding, whereas the riders behind did not have to worry about these issues. - **Encouragement theory** said that the presence of others lifted the rider\'s spirit and made them ride faster. - **Dynamogenic factors** was about individuals\' competitiveness being aroused by the presence of other people, and this causing them to ride faster than when they were alone. - **Fishing Line Kids Test:**  - Kids pulled In fish faster In social groups Vs solo - **Social facilitation theory:** When reeling fishing rods, Triplett found people did this faster when with others than when alone. **Floyd ALLPORT 1924 " SOCIAL FACILITATION"** - coined the term - the presence of others enhances performance - other people in the area influence behaviour **Bayer 1929** - Chickens eat more food around other Chickens **Chen 1937** - Ants excavate more dirt when other ants are around **PESSIN 1933** - Memorise 3 letter made up words - Alone with lights and buzzing - While another person is watching: the social group had the most errors - Control: alone and quiet: performed the best **SOCIAL INHIBITION & DRIVE THEORY** ***Reduced performance due to the presence of others*** **Drive theory 1** **ROBERT ZAJONC 1965** - Arousal facilitates the performance of the dominant response - Arousal (others ) inhibits the performance of non-dominant responses - We do better with people around if the task is easy and we are good at it - We do worse with people around if the task is new and difficult - Environmental influences impact performance **Drive theory 2** **Michaels Et al 1982** - Looked at pool players - The novice did worse with the audience - The expert did better with the audience **Drive Theory Criticisms and Limitations** - **No objective criteria** for determining if a task is difficult or easy - If the task is hard to do for a person assumption is a difficult task - **Limited meta-analytic support** - The presence of people only accounts for 3% variance in the difference of performance of difficult or easy tasks - **Inconsistency and contradictory results** - **Dispositional Factors:** individual differences in participants are ignored and they can impact how a person performs and in front of who **Individual and Dispositional FACTORS, NOT environment, influence social facilitation** ***Personality impacts performance*** **UZIEL 2007** - Uziel's theory says that individuals with a positive orientation towards social situations will perform better in the presence of other people compared to alone, whereas individuals with a negative orientation towards social situations will perform better alone compared to in the presence of other people. - **Individuals who are self-assured and comfortable** in social situations show enhanced performance in the presence of others, Extraverted, high self-esteem - **Individuals with negative and social inhibition**: do worse in social situations show inhibited performance in the presence of others: neurotic, socially anxious, low self-esteem: negative orientation - **Personality and social orientation are important factors that influence a task** **Replication Crisis** **John Ioannidis 2005** - Why most Published Research findings are false due to scientific practices **Daryl Bem 2011** - **Daryl Bem published nine studies suggesting the existence of ESP, and psychologists didn't want to accept the results were real** - ESP: The ability to predict the future - Feeling the future - Experimental evidence for anomalous retroactive influences on cognitive effect **Open Science Collaborative 2015** - Few studies can be replicated 1. Replications Crisis 2. Reproducibility Crisis **Galak and Nelson 2010** - Tried to replicate 8 of Bems studies and failed **WAGENMAKER et al 2011** - Said Bem failed because he used liberal statistical analysis to make the results look more significant - Bem used different statistical methods to predict the future - Said we must change the way we examine data - Found flaws in BEM **Liberal Statistical Demonstration:** - Suppose you played with the Liberal Statistics Demonstration. In that case, you should have observed that researchers working with a dataset could make a number of different choices regarding what to analyse in the dataset and how to do so. - For example, the researchers could choose one of the two political parties to examine, choose which level of politicians to include, choose the measure of economic performance to analyse (the dependent variable), and choose to weigh some data points more heavily than others or to include or exclude some data points.  **REPLICATIONS** - Prevent false positives - Increase confidence that results in accuracy **TWO TYPES OF REPLICATIONS** - **EXACT/DIRECT** - Tries to copy the previous study with the same set of methods and conditions. - A direct replication reproduces, as closely as possible, the methodology of the original experiment, using similar participants, the same design, and ideally exactly the same experimental stimuli. - **CONCEPTUAL** - Tries to confirm previous findings with different method for test but same idea - Testing the theoretical idea behind the study - Findings become generalisable - conceptual replication is another experiment aimed at supporting the same theory or hypothesis as the original experiment, which may use a slightly different methodology, such as a different demographic of participants, a different experimental design, and/or different stimuli. **PROBLEMS WITH REPLICATIONS** - There are lots of reasons that an experiment might fail to replicate, which could be due to issues with the original study or issues with the replication study. - For example, a study might not replicate because the original study was made up, because the authors misrepresented the study or the results, or because they used a liberal statistical approach to analyse the data which made the results more likely to be significant. - An experiment might also fail to replicate because either the original study, the replication, or both, had a low sample size that reduced power or that was not representative of the population. - The replication study might also struggle to exactly follow the methodology of the original study, or the experiment might only work in some conditions or with some participants. **OPEN SCIENCE COLLABORATION 2015** - Did 100 replications in 2008 - Tested BEMS ESP findings - Tested **Psychological Science BEM ESP Findings** - **[Tested Journal of Personality and Social Psychology ]** - **Tested Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition** - Direct replication - 25% could not be replicated - 47.4% effect size was different - 39%Confidence interval different **Studies only replicated once so needed to be checked again** **Reasons for Non-replication Bad Research** - **Original Data was falsified** - 'Publish or perish' - File-drawer problem - Journals only publish significant results pushes researchers to push and change or hide results. - **Small sample sizes** - Answers not representative of the population - Large samples rule out chance - Doesn't reflect the populations - **Effects are not universal** - Effects are contingent on culture or world events - Might only be true to some groups but not enduring or universal - **Quality of the replication** - Methodology not exactly followed - Small sample size - Journals sometimes leave things out - Some methods are not reported and replications guess what was done - **Data Dredging P-Hacking :** when you change or write the hypothesis after the research is conducted to make it seem right - **Conflict of interest from funding or pharma** - **Working solo without combining efforts** **Priming Theory** - phenomenon whereby exposure to one stimulus influences a response to a subsequent stimulus, without conscious guidance or intention - Michael Mosely Test - Examples - Priming older person words - Priming ideas of stereo-typical behaviour professor - Not supported by hot pack **LYNOTT et al. 2014** -  walking speed was measured through lasers, which are probably more accurate than a stopwatch, or the fact that this was a repeated-measured study where all participants acted as their own control (i.e., their walking speed after priming was compared to their walking speed before priming). - participants were deceived in regards to the true aims of the study - they didn\'t know the study was about priming or their walking speed, which might have otherwise influenced their behaviour.  **Deception in Social Psychology Experiments:** **But ethics committees generally deem it to be acceptable provided that** 1\) participants are accurately informed of what they will have to do in the study prior to consenting, 2\) participants are debriefed after the study, and the true aim and reason for deception is disclosed, 3\) participants are able to withdraw consent for the use of their data at the end of the study, 4\) the deception is necessary to achieve the true aims of the study, and 5) it is not foreseeable that participants would have not provided consent to participate if they had known the true aims of the study. **Measure to ensure replicability and reliability** - Methods used - Reporting and dissemination - Reproducibility - Evaluation - Incentives **Aim:** - Increase transparency - Reproducibility - Efficiency of scientific research - Increase knowledge of research methods - Enable practice of critical analysis skills - Enable practice of application skills - Use reasoning ability to explain unusual results **WAYS TO IMPROVE RESEARCH** 1. **Protecting against cognitive biases** - Self-deception - Use Blinding when testing for the researcher, data collection, participants of the research hypothesis 2. **Improve Methodological training** - Misinterpretation of P-value, null hypothesis, and effect size is common due to a lack of training - Make learning methods easy and simple 3. **Implementing independent methodology support** - Use multidisciplinary trials and teams - Committees - Conflict of interests remove 4. **Collaboration and Team Science** - Low statistical power increases false positive results - Collaboration gives high-powered designs and testing generalisability across sample populations 5. **Promoting Study pre-registration** - Improve quality - Improve transparency in reporting research - Reporting guidelines 6. **Reproducibility** - Describe method clearing so it can be replicated correctly - Provides transparency - Social Enterprise - Collaborative group work is good for the public - Creditability to scientific claims 7. **Incentives** - Positive, novel and clean results are more likely to be published - Replications not likely published - These incentives increase the likelihood of false positives being published