Beowulf Extract - 2021 Reader & Workbook PDF

Contents THE OLD ENGLISH PERIOD Beowulf Extract (Grendel attacks Heorot and is mortally wounded by Beowulf) 2 THE MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD Geoffrey Chaucer, The Canterbury Tales (three extracts) Extract 1: The opening lines 7 Extract 2:...

Contents THE OLD ENGLISH PERIOD Beowulf Extract (Grendel attacks Heorot and is mortally wounded by Beowulf) 2 THE MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD Geoffrey Chaucer, The Canterbury Tales (three extracts) Extract 1: The opening lines 7 Extract 2: The Squire 8 Extract 3: The Wife of Bath 10 THE RENAISSANCE 16th Century Love Sonnets Edmund Spenser Sonnet LXXV from Amoretti (“One day I wrote her name …”) 12 William Shakespeare Sonnet 18 (“Shall I compare thee …”) 14 Sonnet 130 (“My mistress’s eyes …”) 16 William Shakespeare, Playwright Romeo and Juliet: extracts (edited) 17 Four famous soliloquies 1. From Richard II: “This England” 26 2. From As You Like It: “All the world’s a stage” 27 3. From Hamlet: “To be or not to be” 29 4. From Macbeth: “To-morrow, and to-morrow, and to-morrow” 32 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY Satire in the Age of Reason Jonathan Swift Introductory note Gulliver’s Travels (extract) 34 THE ROMANTIC PERIOD Romantic Poetry William Wordsworth, three poems 1. “I wandered lonely as a cloud” 37 2. “She dwelt among the untrodden ways” 38 3. “It’s a beauteous evening, calm and free” 39 Percy Bysshe Shelley, Ozymandias 41 John Keats, La Belle Dame Sans Merci 42 THE VICTORIAN AGE Victorian Poetry Alfred, Lord Tennyson, Ulysses 45 Robert Browning, My Last Duchess 48 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY The Great War: Four War Poets Rupert Brooke, The Soldier 52 Charles Sorley, “When You See Millions of the Mouthless Dead” 53 Siegfried Sassoon, Suicide in the Trenches 54 Wilfred Owen, Anthem for Doomed Youth 56 1 THE OLD ENGLISH PERIOD Beowulf An extract Introductory note Beowulf is a heroic epic poem in Old English of over 3,000 alliterative long lines. Set in Scandinavia, it was composed in England by an anonymous Anglo-Saxon poet, probably between the 8th and the late 10th century. The poem was written down in the early 11th century by an equally anonymous monk. This manuscript, which was badly damaged by fire in the 18th century, is its only surviving copy. After having been virtually neglected for some 800 years, the poem was first studied seriously in the early 19th century. Its reputation has grown ever since, and it is now generally regarded the most important work of Anglo-Saxon literature. In 1999, the Irish Nobel Prize winning poet Seamus Heaney published a new translation of Beowulf which has further enhanced its reputation as an important work of English literature. The hero Beowulf, a warrior belonging to the tribe of the Geats (a people living in Götaland in the south of modern Sweden), comes to the help of Hrothgar, the king of the Danes, whose mead hall (part of the royal palace of Heorot) has been under attack by a monster known as Grendel. After Beowulf slays him, Grendel's mother attacks the hall and is then also defeated and killed by Beowulf. Victorious, the hero goes home to Geatland and later becomes king of his people. After a period of fifty years has passed, Beowulf defeats a dragon, but is fatally wounded in the battle. After his death, his attendants bury him in a burial mound by the sea. Extract from Beowulf: A New Translation by Seamus Heaney (1999) Extract Grendel attacks Heorot and is mortally wounded by Beowulf In off the moors, down through the mist bands God-cursed Grendel came greedily loping. running The bane of the race of men roamed forth, ruin hunting for a prey in the high hall. 5 Under the cloud-murk he moved towards it until it shone above him, a sheer keep high tower of fortified gold. Nor was that the first time he had scouted the grounds of Hrothgar's dwelling— although never in his life, before or since, did he find harder fortune or hall-defenders. 10 Spurned and joyless, he journeyed on ahead rejected and arrived at the bawn. The iron-braced door stronghold, castle turned on its hinge when his hands touched it. Then his rage boiled over, he ripped open the mouth of the building, maddening for blood, 15 pacing the length of the patterned floor with his loathsome tread, while a baleful light, disgusting // evil flame more than light, flared from his eyes. He saw many men in the mansion, sleeping, a ranked company of kinsmen and warriors relatives 2 20 quartered together. And his glee was demonic, lodged picturing the mayhem: before morning confusion and fear he would rip life from limb and devour them, feed on their flesh; but his fate that night was due to change, his days of ravening devouring 25 had come to an end. Mighty and canny, careful Hygelac's kinsman was keenly watching i.e. Beowulf [who was related to Hygelac, for the first move the monster would make. king of the Geats] Nor did the creature keep him waiting, but struck suddenly and started in; 30 he grabbed and mauled a man on his bench, attacked bit into his bone-lappings, bolted down his blood i.e his flesh // drank hastily and gorged on him in lumps, leaving the body ate greedily utterly lifeless, eaten up hand and foot. Venturing closer, risking to come 35 his talon was raised to attack Beowulf claw where he lay on the bed; he was bearing in moving in with open claw when the alert hero's comeback and armlock forestalled him utterly. counterattack // prevented him from attacking The captain of evil discovered himself 40 in a handgrip harder than anything he had ever encountered in any man on the face of the earth. Every bone in his body quailed and recoiled, but he could not escape. was tense with fear Modern artist’s impression of the scene described in lines 34-43 (above). He was desperate to flee to his den and hide hidden home 45 with the devil's litter, for in all his days brood he had never been clamped or cornered like this. held and trapped Then Hygelac's trusty retainer recalled royal servant (knight, warrior) 3  his bedtime speech, sprang to his feet and got a firm hold. Fingers were bursting, 50 the monster back-tracking, the man overpowering. The dread of the land was desperate to escape, to take a roundabout road and flee to his lair in the fens. The latching power hideout // the grip in his fingers weakened; it was the worst trip 55 the terror-monger had taken to Heorot. maker of terror And now the timbers trembled and sang, a hall-session that harrowed every Dane worried inside the stockade: stumbling in fury, stronghold the two contenders crashed through the building. 60 The hall clattered and hammered, but somehow survived the onslaught and kept standing: attack it was handsomely structured, a sturdy frame strong braced with the best of blacksmith's work made stronger inside and out. The story goes 65 that as the pair struggled, mead-benches were smashed benches used by men drinking mead and sprung off the floor, gold fittings and all. Before then, no Shielding elder would believe member of Danish royal clan there was any power or person upon earth capable of wrecking their horn-rigged hall 70 unless the burning embrace of a fire engulf it in flame. Then an extraordinary wail arose, and bewildering fear came over the Danes. Everyone felt it who heard that cry as it echoed off the wall, 75 a God-cursed scream and strain of catastrophe, sound, cry the howl of the loser, the lament of the hell-serf servant (slave) of hell keening his wound. He was overwhelmed, bewailing manacled tight by the man who of all men held was foremost and strongest in the days of this life. 80 But the earl-troop's leader was not inclined to allow his caller to depart alive: he did not consider that life of much account to anyone anywhere. Time and again, Beowulf's warriors worked to defend 85 their lord's life, laying about them as best they could with their ancestral blades. swords Stalwart in action, they kept striking out courageous on every side, seeking to cut straight to the soul. When they joined the struggle 90 there was something they could not have known at the time, that no blade on earth, no blacksmith's art sword could ever damage their demon opponent. He had conjured the harm from the cutting edge magically removed of every weapon. But his going away 4  95 out of this world and the days of his life would be agony to him, and his alien spirit would travel far into fiends' keeping. of evil spirits Then he who had harrowed the hearts of men, ravaged with pain and affliction in former times (pain and) suffering 100 and had given offence also to God, found that his bodily powers failed him. Hygelac's kinsman kept him helplessly locked in a handgrip. As long as either lived, he was hateful to the other. The monster's whole 105 body was in pain, a tremendous wound appeared on his shoulder. Sinews split and the bone-lappings burst. Beowulf was granted the glory of winning; Grendel was driven under the fen-banks, fatally hurt, banks of the fens (moors) 110 to his desolate lair. His days were numbered, the end of his life was coming over him, he knew it for certain; and one bloody clash had fulfilled the dearest wishes of the Danes. The man who had lately landed among them, 115 proud and sure, had purged the hall, cleaned up, purified kept it from harm; he was happy with his nightwork and the courage he had shown. The Geat captain had boldly fulfilled his boast to the Danes: proud claim, promise he had healed and relieved a huge distress, 120 unremitting humiliations, ever continuing the hard fate they'd been forced to undergo, no small affliction. Clear proof of this could be seen in the hand the hero displayed high up near the roof: the whole of Grendel's 125 shoulder and arm, his awesome grasp. Assignment 1 (“Beowulf”) 1. In lines 1-17, find three examples of so-called “kennings”. Note: A “kenning” may be defined as a poetic, two-word description of a common word. Two examples (both from Beowulf) are: seġl-rād (“sail-road” or “road of sails”) and hron-rād (“whale road” or “road of the whales”), both referring to “the sea”. In other texts we find such descriptive phrases as heofon-candel (“sky-candle”) and heofones ġim (“sky’s jewel”) that both refer to “the sun”. The use of kennings like these is a characteristic of Old English poetry. - - - continued  5 2. Find words and phrases that are used in lines 1-21 and lines 39-55 to describe the appearance, character, and mood of Grendel. Indicate to which category the items (i.e. the words/phrases belong): A (appearance), C (character) or M (mood). Find at least five items for each category. (Please note that many descriptions may belong to more than one category.) A: APPEARANCE C: CHARACTER M: MOOD - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3. Although Beowulf is sometimes referred to by name, the poet more often than not uses some sort of descriptive phrase (such as “Hygelac’s kinsman”, line 25) to describe the hero of the poem. Find six more of such descriptive phrases in this extract (lines 28 - 125). - - - - - - 6 THE MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD Geoffrey Chaucer The Canterbury Tales Three extracts from the General Prologue Introductory note The Canterbury Tales, although unfinished at his death in 1400, was Geoffrey Chaucer's magnum opus. He uses the individual tales and the descriptions of its characters to paint an ironic and critical portrait of English society at the time, particularly of the Church. Structurally, it resembles Boccaccio’s Decamerone, which Chaucer may have read during a diplomatic mission to Italy. The great variation in the characters’ stories allows Chaucer to show his great skill in different genres and literary forms. In the General Prologue, Chaucer not only introduces each of his characters (i.e. the pilgrims on their way to Canterbury), but also provides the background to his frame story. The tales (mostly written in verse, although some are in prose) are presented as part of a story-telling contest among the pilgrims as they travel together from Southwark (then a town situated the south bank of the River Thames, now part of London) to the shrine of Saint Thomas Becket at Canterbury Cathedral. The prize for this contest is a free meal at the Tabard Inn at Southwark on their return. Extract 1: The opening lines In the opening lines of the General Prologue, Chaucer uses the so-called ‘high style’ to sing the praises of the month of April, whose rains and warm western wind restore life and fertility to the earth and its inhabitants. This abundance of life prompts people to go on pilgrimages. In England, the most popular goal of such pilgrimages was the shrine of Thomas Becket in the most important church in the country, the Cathedral at Canterbury. Here bygynneth the Book of the tales of Caunterbury. Whan that Aprill with his shoures soote When April with its sweet showers The droghte of March hath perced to the roote, Has pierced the drought of March to the root, And bathed every veyne in swich licour And bathed every vein in rich liquid Of which vertu engendred is the flour; By virtue of which the flower is brought to life; 5 Whan Zephirus eek with his sweete breeth When likewise Zephyr with his sweet breath Inspired hath in every holt and heeth Has inspired in every wood and heath The tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne The young crops, and the young sun Hath in the Ram his halve cours yronne, Has run half his course in the Ram, And smale foweles maken melodye, And small birds sing 10 That slepen al the nyght with open ye That sleep all night with open eyes (So priketh hem nature in hir corages); (So nature pricks them in their feelings); Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages Then people long to go on a pilgrimage And palmeres for to seken straunge strondes And pilgrims to seek strange strands To ferne halwes, kowthe in sondry londes; In distant holy places, known in various lands; 15 And specially from every shires ende And especially from the end of every shire Of Engelond, to Caunterbury they wende, Of England, they go to Canterbury The hooly blisful martir for to seke To seek the holy blessed martyr That hem hath holpen, whan that they were seeke. Who has helped them when they were ill 7 Assignment 2 (Canterbury Tales, opening lines) 1. The language in this passage serves to make clear that Middle English was the result of a “merger” between (Old) English (like modern Dutch and German a Germanic language) and (Norman) French (like modern French a Romance language). Find five words that are clearly (Old) English in origin, and five others that must have come into the language after the Norman Conquest. (Old) English origin (Norman) French origin - - - - - - - - - - 2. The imagery in the opening lines of the General Prologue is one of renewal and (spiritual) rebirth. Find five examples that make this clear. - - - - - After the opening lines, Chaucer proceeds to introduce the twenty-nine pilgrims that have decided to travel from London to Canterbury together. The portraits are of varying length (some only two lines, others much longer). Extracts 2 and 3 contain two of these portraits. Extract 2: The Squire As the nobility was the highest and most important of the three estates in medieval society, its two representatives in the group of pilgrims, the Knight and his son, the Squire, are the first to be introduced. In the 14th century, a squire was a young man of noble birth preparing to be a knight. After several years of service to a knight, a squire could become a knight himself, but not until he had proved himself to be a brave and skilful fighter as well as a young man of good behaviour and character. From Chaucer’s portrait it becomes clear that becoming a brave soldier is not the only thing the young squire is interested in. Illustration of the Squire from the Ellesmere manuscript of The Canterbury Tales 8  With hym ther was his sone, a yong SQUIER, With him there was his son, a young squire, A lovyere and a lusty bacheler; A lover and a lively bachelor; With lokkes crulle, as they were leyd in presse. With curly locks, as if they had been pressed. Of twenty yeer of age he was, I gesse. Some twenty years of age he was, I guess. 5 Of his stature he was of evene lengthe, In stature he was of average length, And wonderly delyvere, and of greet strengthe. And wondrously agile and of great strength. And he hadde been somtyme in chyvachie And he had once been with the cavalry In Flaundres, in Artoys, and Pycardie, in Flanders, in Artois, and Picardy, And born hym weel, as of so litel space, And behaved well within that little space, 10 In hope to stonden in his lady grace. Hoping in that way to win his lady's grace. Embrouded was he, as it were a meede, Embroidered he was, like a bright meadow Al ful of fresshe floures, whyte and reede; Full of fresh flowers, white and red; Syngynge he was, or floytynge, al the day, All day he was singing or whistling, He was as fressh as is the monthe of May. He was as fresh as is the month of May. 15 Short was his gowne, with sleves longe and wyde. Short was his gown, with long and wide sleeves. Wel koude he sitte on hors, and faire ryde. He could well sit on a horse, and ride fairly. He koude songes make, and wel endite, He could make songs and compose the words, Juste, and eek daunce, and weel purtreye and write. Joust, and also dance, and sketch and write well So hoote he lovede, that by nyghtertale He loved so hotly that during the night 20 He slepte namoore than dooth a nyghtyngale. He slept no more than a nightingale does. Curteis he was, lowely, and servysable, Courteous he was, humble and willing and able, And carf biforn his fader at the table. And carved to serve his father at table. Assignment 3 (“The Squire”) 1. In his description of the Squire, Chaucer brings out a number of qualities of either body (appearance) or mind (character). Find five examples of each. BODY MIND - - - - - - - - - - 2. What is the over-all effect of Chaucer’s description on the way in which we see the Squire? 3. Find a line that summarizes the way in which Chaucer sees the Squire. 9 Extract 3 The Wife of Bath The commoners (members of the third estate in medieval society) among the pilgrims include representatives of trade (the Merchant), various crafts (such as the Cook and the Miller), the law (the Sergeant- of-the-law) and the learned professions (the Physician). One of the liveliest and most interesting portraits is that of the only woman in this group, the Wife of Bath. In a time when it was a generally accepted fact that women were inferior to men, she stands out as a remarkable individual in her own right. Illustration of the Wife of Bath from the Ellesmere manuscript of The Canterbury Tales A good WIF was ther, OF biside BATHE, A good woman there was, from outside Bath, But she was somdel deef, and that was scathe. But she was somewhat deaf, and that was a pity. Of clooth-makyng she hadde swich an haunt, At making clothes she had such a hand, She passed hem of Ypres and of Gaunt. She bettered those of Ypres and of Ghent. 5 In al the parisshe wif ne was ther noon In all the parish there was no woman That to the offrynge bifore hire sholde goon; Who could go before her in offering; And if ther dide, certeyn so wrooth was she, And if one did, indeed she was so angry That she was out of alle charitee. That she was put out of all her charity. Hir coverchiefs ful fyne weren of ground; Her head-dresses were of fine cloth; 10 I dorste swere they weyeden ten pound I dare swear they weighed ten pounds, That on a Sonday weren upon hir heed. The ones which were on her head on Sunday. Hir hosen weren of fyn scarlet reed, Her stockings were of fine scarlet red, Ful streite yteyd, and shoes ful moyste and newe. Tightly laced, and her shoes soft and new Boold was hir face, and fair, and reed of hewe. Bold was her face, and fair, and red of hue. 15 She was a worthy womman al hir lyve: She was a worthy woman all her life: Housbondes at chirche dore she hadde fyve, She had five husbands at the church door, Withouthen oother compaignye in youthe, - Apart from other company in her youth, But therof nedeth nat to speke as nowthe. But there’s now no need to speak of that. And thries hadde she been at Jerusalem; She had been to Jerusalem three times; 20 She hadde passed many a straunge strem; She had passed many a foreign stream; At Rome she hadde been, and at Boloigne, In Rome she had been, and in Boulogne, In Galice at Seint-Jame, and at Coloigne. In Galicia at Santiago, and Cologne. She koude much of wandrynge by the weye. She knew much of wandering by the way. Gat-tothed was she, soothly for to seye. She was gap-toothed, to tell you the truth. 25 Upon an amblere esily she sat, On a pacing horse she sat easily, Ywympled wel, and on hir heed an hat With a large wimple and on her head a hat As brood as is a bokeler or a targe; As broad as a buckler or a shield is; A foot-mantel aboute hir hipes large, A riding skirt around her large hips, And on hir feet a paire of spores sharpe. And on her feet a pair of sharp spurs. 30 In felaweshipe wel koude she laughe and carpe. In company she laugh and talk well. Of remedies of love she knew per chaunce, She happened to know about the remedies of love, For she koude of that art the olde daunce. For she knew the oldest dance of that art. 10 Assignment 4 (“The Wife of Bath”) 1. Chaucer’s method of characterization is best described as revealing a person’s true character through a number of details that may seem irrelevant at first sight. In the portrait of the Wife of Bath, what do the following elements really tell us: - her behaviour in church (lines 5-8) - her appearance (lines 9-14 and 25-29) - her experience in love and marriage (lines 15-18 and 31-32) 2. Does Chaucer want the reader to believe that the Wife of Bath is a religious woman because she has been to so many holy places (lines 19-23)? In this light, how do you interpret line 23? Explain your answers. - - 11 THE RENAISSANCE 16th Century Love Sonnets Spenser and Shakespeare Introductory note The wave of love poetry that was produced in the Elizabethan Age found its origins in Italian. In the first half of the 16th century poets such as Sir Thomas Wyatt and Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey became acquainted with the work of the 14th century Italian poet Petrarch, whose sonnets to an unattainable beloved called Laura still rank high among the great love poetry of the world. Wyatt and Surrey set themselves the task of doing the same sort of thing in English, both in subject matter (poems describing in idealized terms the beauty and the virtues of the beloved, but often also the poet’s pain at being unable to be with her) and form (the sonnet). The original Petrarchan rhyme scheme was adapted to suit the possibilities of English, but essential characteristics of the sonnet such as its length (14 lines of ten syllables each) and structure (an internal division into groups of four and three lines) remained unchanged. In the second half of the 16th century, the tradition of the love sonnet reached its greatest heights in English, especially in the sonnets written by the two greatest Elizabethan poets, Edmund Spenser and William Shakespeare. However, in the early years of the 17 th century, the popularity of this type of love poetry quickly declined. Although the sonnet continued to be a favourite verse form for several hundreds of years, later poets tended to write about love in terms that were far less exalted and much more realistic. Edmund Spenser Amoretti, first published in London in 1595, was a cycle of 89 sonnets in which Spenser describes his courtship and eventual marriage to Elizabeth Boyle. Sonnet LXXV of this cycle (“One day I wrote her name upon the strand”) has become one of the most anthologized poems of English literature. Sonnet LXXV One day I wrote her name upon the strand, beach but came the waves and washed it away: again I wrote it with a second hand, but came the tide, and made my pains his prey. destroyed my efforts 5 Vain man, said she, that doest in vain assay, tries in vain a mortal thing so to immortalize. for I myself shall like to this decay, and eek my name be wiped out likewise. also Not so, (quoth I) let baser things devise 10 to die in dust1, but you shall live by fame: my verse your virtues rare shall eternize, poetry // make immortal and in the heavens write your glorious name. Where whenas death shall all the world subdue2, our love shall live, and later life renew. 1 (said I) mortal things may be destined/to die and be forgotten 2 when death will conquer the whole world 12 Assignment 5 (Spenser, Sonnet LXXV) 1. Explain the scene described in the first stanza: who is it about, where are they, what does one of them do and why? - who? - where? - what? - why? 2. (a) What is the lady’s argument in the second stanza? (b) To what extent is she right? 3. Say in your own words what the poet’s response (lines 9-14) amounts to. 4. (a) Which line summarizes the theme of the poem? (b) Explain your answer. 13 William Shakespeare Shakespeare's Sonnets, first published in London in a 1609 quarto edition, are a collection of 154 sonnets, dealing with themes such as the passage of time, love, beauty and mortality. Sonnets 1-126 are addressed to a “Fair Youth”. In the first group of 17 poems Shakespeare urges the young man to marry and have children in order to immortalize his beauty by passing it to the next generation. From sonnet 18 onwards, he changes his tone dramatically to express his (spiritual) love for the young man. Frequently hinting at romantic intimacy, these poems also deal with such themes as loneliness, death, and the transience of life. Sonnets 127-152 are addressed to a “Dark Lady”, so called because she is said to have dark hair and a dusky skin. Expressing the poet’s passion for his beloved in clearly sexual terms, the poems in this group also deal with Shakespeare’s realization that their love is sinful and his despair at her unfaithfulness. The first printed edition of Shakespeare’s Sonnets (1609) Left: Title-page. Right: page with Sonnet 18 (and parts of both nos. 17 and 19) Sonnet 18 Shall I compare thee to a summer's day? Thou art more lovely and more temperate: mild Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May, favourite flowers And summer's lease hath all too short a date: summer is too short 5 Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines, And often is his gold complexion dimmed; golden face darkened And every fair from fair sometime declines,1 By chance or nature's changing course untrimmed;2 But thy eternal summer shall not fade 10 Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow’st;3 1 And everything beautiful will at some point lose its beauty 2 or made less beautiful by the changing tides of nature 3 Nor will you lose the beauty that you possess (own) 14  Nor shall Death brag thou wander'st in his shade,4 When in eternal lines to time thou grow’st: So long as men can breathe or eyes can see, So long lives this and this gives life to thee. 4 Nor will death be able to claim you for his own Assignment 6 (Shakespeare, Sonnet 18) 1. What does the poet want to express by using the image of “a summer’s day” (line 1)? 2. The beloved person addressed in the poem is said to be “more temperate” (line 2) than a summer’s day. What four examples are mentioned in lines 3 to 6 to illustrate that summer is not always “temperate”? - - - - 3. The phrase “thy eternal summer shall not fade” (line 9) is in direct contrast with lines 7- 8. Explain. 4. Which lines best express the poem’s theme? Explain your answer. 15 Sonnet 130 My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun; Coral is far more red than her lips' red; If snow be white, why then her breasts are dun1; If hairs be wires, black wires grow on her head. 5 I have seen roses damasked2, red and white, But no such roses see I in her cheeks; And in some perfumes is there more delight Than in the breath that from my mistress reeks. stinks I love to hear her speak, yet well I know 10 That music hath a far more pleasing sound; I grant I never saw a goddess go,- admit My mistress, when she walks, treads on the ground. sets down her feet And yet, by heaven, I think my love as rare unique As any she belied with false compare3. 1 of a dull greyish-brown colour 2 type of sweet-scented, brightly coloured rose 3 As any woman misrepresented by ridiculous comparisons Assignment 7 (Shakespeare, Sonnet 130) 1. In many Elizabethan love sonnets, a series of extremely flattering (and often exaggerated) comparisons is used to describe the lover’s beautiful physical appearance. Judging from lines 1-12, in what way or ways is this sonnet different in tone? 2. What is the effect that the poet wants to achieve with the final couplet? 16  William Shakespeare, Playwright Scenes and Soliloquies Romeo and Juliet Introductory note Shakespeare wrote Romeo and Juliet early in his career, probably between 1591 and 1595. It is a tragedy about two young star-crossed lovers whose deaths ultimately reconcile their feuding families. It was among Shakespeare's most popular plays during his lifetime and, along with Hamlet, is one of his most frequently performed plays. Today, the title characters are regarded as archetypal young lovers. In the entire play, Romeo and Juliet only have a handful of scenes together. Three of these scenes are here presented in edited form to correspond with the screenplay of Baz Luhrmann’s 1996 film of the play, William Shakespeare’s Romeo + Juliet. Left: title page of a quarto edition of Romeo and Juliet, published in 1597. Right: first page of Romeo and Juliet in the so-called First Folio of 1623. The play After a prologue, which gives Shakespeare the chance to describe the scene for his audience and to inform them about the most important storyline as well as its tragic outcome, the first act of the play begins with a street fight between supporters of the rival Houses of Montague and Capulet. The Prince of Verona proclaims an order to stop the fighting. If anyone should go against it, they will be banished from the city. Montague's son, Romeo, has recently been depressed as a result of an unrequited love for a girl named Rosaline, one of Capulet's nieces. Persuaded by his friends Benvolio and Mercutio, Romeo attends a ball at the Capulet house in hopes of meeting Rosaline. However, he sees another beautiful young girl instead, and she (who is, in fact, Capulet’s daughter Juliet) sees him. For both of them, it is obviously love at first sight. As yet unaware of the fact that they belong to two rival families, Romeo approaches the girl. 17 Long extract: ROMEO AND JULIET FALLING IN LOVE Text adapted from Act I, Scene 5 & Act II, Scenes 1 and 2 ROMEO If I profane with my unworthiest hand offend This holy shrine, the gentle sin is this: Du. heiligdom My lips, two blushing pilgrims, ready stand To smooth that rough touch with a tender kiss. 5 JULIET Good pilgrim, you do wrong your hand too much, Which mannerly devotion shows in this; polite For saints have hands that pilgrims' hands do touch, And palm to palm is holy palmers' kiss.1 ROMEO Have not saints lips, and holy palmers too? 10 JULIET Ay, pilgrim, lips that they must use in prayer. ROMEO O, then, dear saint, let lips do what hands do; They pray, grant thou, lest faith turn to despair2. JULIET Saints do not move, though grant for prayers' sake. ROMEO Then move not, while my prayer's effect I take. [He kisses her] 15 Thus from my lips, by yours, my sin is purged. cleaned JULIET Then have my lips the sin that they have took. ROMEO Sin from thy lips? O trespass sweetly urged!3 Give me my sin again. [They kiss again] JULIET You kiss by the book. 20 JULIET’S MOTHER Juliet? Juliet? Juliet! NURSE Madam, your mother craves a word with you. wants Come, let’s away! [Watching the girl he has fallen in love with go up the stairs with her nurse, it slowly dawns on Romeo who she is.] ROMEO Is she a Capulet? [Going up the stairs, Juliet cannot take her eyes off the boy she has fallen in love with.] NURSE His name is Romeo, and he is a Montague, The only son of your great enemy. [Romeo’s friend Mercutio comes to take him away from the ball.] 25 MERCUTIOAway, be gone. The sport is at its best! ROMEO Ay, so I fear. The more is my unrest. [Romeo and his friends prepare to leave, but still Romeo keeps trying to catch a glimpse of Juliet. From the balcony, she watches him leave.] JULIET My only love sprung from my only hate! Too early seen unknown, and known too late! Prodigious birth of love it is to me, miraculous 30 That I must love a loathed enemy. hated 1 Pilgrims (also called “palmers”) used to touch the hands of the statues of saints they prayed to during a pilgrimage. 2 Please grant me my request (i.e. kiss me), so that my faith does not turn to despair. 3 You encourage crime with your sweetness. 18  [Tybalt, a cousin of Juliet’s who hates the Montagues with all his heart, has recognized Romeo at the ball, and now sees him and his friends leave.] TYBALT I will withdraw. But this intrusion shall, Now seeming sweet, convert to bitterest gall. [Romeo slips away from his friends. Believing that Romeo is still in love with Rosaline, Mercutio calls after him.] MERCUTIO Romeo! Romeo! Humours! Madman! Passion! Lover! I will conjure thee by Rosaline’s bright eyes, call on By her high forehead and her scarlet lip, By her fine foot, her straight leg, and quivering thigh! 35 O Romeo, that she were an open-ass, And thou a poperin pear!4 [Romeo climbs the wall to enter the Capulet garden.] ROMEO He jests at scars that never felt a wound. jokes about [Mercutio and the others leave.] MERCUTIO Romeo! Good night! I’ll to my truckle-bed, Du. onderschuifbed This field bed is too cold for me to sleep. Assignment 8 (Romeo and Juliet, long extract, lines 1 - 39) 1. Say in your own words how Romeo in lines 1 - 4 tries to get permission from Juliet to kiss her. 2. Most of the metaphors Romeo and Juliet use in lines 1 - 18 have a (partly) religious meaning: (a) What is meant by “this holy shrine” (line 2)? (b) What does Romeo mean when he says “let lips do what hands do”(line 11)? 3. What does Juliet mean saying “too early seen unknown and known too late” (line 28)? 4. In what way are Tybalt’s words in lines 31 - 32 prophetic? 4 Dirty word play, typical of Shakespeare and his times: “a poperin pear” was a type of pear from Belgium; however, it can also be interpreted as ‘pop-it-in’ with the word ‘pear’ referring to the male sexual organ. The reference to Rosaline as “an open-ass” completes the sexual meaning of this remark. 19  [After entering the Capulets’ garden, Romeo sees a light go on in an upstairs room.] 40 ROMEO But, soft! what light through yonder window breaks? that window over there It is the east, and Juliet is the sun. Arise, fair sun, and kill the envious moon, jealous Who is already sick and pale with grief, That thou her maid art far more fair than she. young lady 45 Be not her maid, since she is envious. Her vestal livery is but sick and green, virgin’s costume And none but fools to wear it. Cast it off! throw [Juliet appears, but she does not see Romeo yet.] It is my lady, O, it is my love! O, that she knew she were! 50 JULIET Ay me! ROMEO She speaks; O, speak again, bright angel! JULIET O Romeo, Romeo! wherefore art thou Romeo? Deny thy father and refuse thy name; reject Or, if thou wilt not, be but sworn my love5, 55 And I'll no longer be a Capulet. ROMEO [Aside] Shall I hear more, or shall I speak at this? JULIET 'Tis but thy name that is my enemy; only Thou art thyself, though not a Montague6. What's Montague? It is nor hand, nor foot, 60 Nor arm, nor face, nor any other part Belonging to a man. O, be some other name! What's in a name? That which we call a rose By any other word would smell as sweet; So Romeo would, were he not Romeo called, 65 Retain that dear perfection which he owes keep // has Without that title. Romeo, doff thy name, get rid of And for that name which is no part of thee Take all myself. ROMEO I take thee at thy word. 70 JULIET Art thou not Romeo and a Montague? ROMEO Neither, fair saint, if either thee dislike. JULIET How camest thou hither, tell me, and wherefore? here The orchard walls are high and hard to climb, tree garden And the place death, considering who thou art. i.e. your death 75 ROMEO With love's light wings did I o'er-perch these walls; climb For stony limits cannot hold love out, boundaries And what love can do that dares love attempt; love dares to do Therefore thy kinsmen are no stop to me. relatives // obstacle JULIET If they do see thee, they will murder thee. 5 swear that you love me 6 You are yourself even if you were not a Montague 20  80 ROMEO I have night's cloak to hide me from their eyes; Du. mantel And but thou love me, let them find me here: My life were better ended by their hate, Than death prorogued, wanting of thy love7. JULIET Thou know'st the mask of night is on my face, 85 Else would a maiden blush bepaint my cheek colour For that which thou hast heard me speak to-night. Fain would I dwell on form8, fain, fain deny What I have spoke. But farewell compliment! away with good manners Dost thou love me? I know thou wilt say 'Ay,' 90 And I will take thy word: yet if thou swear'st, Thou mayst prove false; O gentle Romeo, If thou dost love, pronounce it faithfully. say ROMEO Lady, by yonder blessed moon I vow swear That tips with silver all these fruit-tree tops-- 95 JULIET O, swear not by the moon, the inconstant moon, That monthly changes in her circled orb, round orbit Lest that thy love prove likewise variable. changeable ROMEO What shall I swear by? JULIET Do not swear at all; 100 Or, if thou wilt, swear by thy gracious self, Which is the god of my idolatry, blind devotion And I'll believe thee. ROMEO If my heart's dear love-- JULIET Well, do not swear. Although I joy in thee, 105 I have no joy of this contract to-night. i.e. love contract It is too rash, too unadvised, too sudden; Too like the lightning, which doth cease to be Ere one can say 'It lightens.' Sweet, good night! This bud of love, by summer's ripening breath, Du. knop (v.e. bloem) 110 May prove a beauteous flower when next we meet. beautiful Good night, good night! ROMEO O, wilt thou leave me so unsatisfied? JULIET What satisfaction canst thou have to-night? ROMEO The exchange of thy love's faithful vow for mine. your vow of love 115 JULIET I gave thee mine before thou didst request it: NURSE [At the window above.] Juliet! JULIET Three words, dear Romeo, and good night indeed. If that thy bent of love be honourable, intention Thy purpose marriage, send me word tomorrow goal 120 By one that I’ll procure to come to thee send Where and what time thou wilt perform the rite, ceremony 7 It would be better to be killed by their hatred than to live with without your love, which would be death postponed to me 8 I would be happy to keep up good manners 21  And all my fortunes at thy foot I’ll lay, And follow thee, my lord, throughout the world. NURSE Julieta! 125 JULIET Ay! By and by, I come! But if thou meanest not well, I do beseech thee … beg NURSE Juliet! JULIET By and by, I come! 130 … to cease thy strife, and leave me to my grief. your efforts Tomorrow will I send. ROMEO So thrive my soul. blossom JULIET A thousand times good night. ROMEO A thousand times the worse to want thy light. miss 135 NURSE Juliet! Julieta! JULIET Good night ROMEO Love goes toward love as schoolboys from their books, But love from love, toward school with heavy looks9. JULIET Romeo! What o’clock tomorrow shall I send to thee? 140 ROMEO By the hour of nine. JULIET I will not fail. ‘Tis twenty year till then. Good night. Good night. Parting is such sweet sorrow Saying goodbye That I shall say good night till it be morrow. morning NURSE Juliet! The balcony of the Casa di Giulietta is one of the most famous tourist attractions of the Italian town of Verona, that Shakespeare used as the scene of Romeo and Juliet. Although the balcony is quite popular, especially with (young) lovers, there is, unfortunately, no reason to assume that such words as “O Romeo, Romeo! Wherefore art thou Romeo?” were ever spoken from this particular balcony…. 9 A lover goes to his beloved as enthusiastically as schoolboys leave their books, but when he leaves his beloved he is as miserable as schoolboys are on their way to school. 22 Assignment 9 (Romeo and Juliet, long extract, lines 40 - 144) 1. (a) Considering what Romeo says about the moon in lines 42 - 47, what is rather surprising about him referring to the moon again in line 93? (b) Why does Juliet tell Romeo: “O, swear not by the moon” (line 95)? 2. In lines 52 - 68, Juliet reflects on the name of the young man from an enemy family that she has fallen in love with. What does her argument amount to? 3. In your own words, explain what Romeo is saying in (a) lines 75 - 78: (b) lines 80 - 83: 4. Juliet says she would happily deny the words that Romeo has heard her speak (see lines 84 - 88). Explain why. 5. According to lines 105 - 108, what is Juliet afraid of? The young lovers engage the services of a clergyman, Friar Lawrence, to marry them. Juliet then returns to her parents’ house to wait for Romeo to come at night. In the city, Romeo stumbles on a fight between a group of Montagues including his Mercutio and some Capulets led by Tybalt, who challenges Romeo to a duel. Not wanting to fight one of Juliet’s relatives, Romeo refuses. When Tybalt accuses him of being a coward, 23 Mercutio decides to defend his friend’s honour. Romeo tries to stop the fighting, but when Mercutio is killed by Tybalt, he is so enraged that he in turn kills Tybalt. As a result, the Prince banishes Romeo from Verona. Before leaving for the city of Mantua, Romeo secretly enters the Capulet house and the two lovers spend their wedding night in Juliet’s room. ROMEO MUST LEAVE JULIET AFTER THEIR WEDDING NIGHT Text adapted from Act III, Scene 5 JULIET Wilt thou be gone? It is not yet near day. Are you going? ROMEO I must be gone and live, or stay and die. JULIET Yon light is not day-light, I know it, I. It is some meteor that the sun exhales, comes out of the sun 5 To light thee on thy way to Mantua. Therefore stay yet. Thou need'st not to be gone. ROMEO Let me be taken, let me be put to death. I have more care to stay than will to go. Come, death, and welcome! Juliet wills it so. 10 How is't, my soul? let's talk; it is not day. JULIET It is, it is. Hie hence, be gone, away! Get out of here O, now be gone; more light and light it grows. ROMEO More light and light; more dark and dark our woes! sad troubles NURSE [enters the room] Madam! Your lady mother is coming to your chamber. 15 JULIET’S MOTHER [from within] Ho, daughter, are you up? JULIET Then, window, let day in, and let life out. [Juliet helps Romeo climb out of the window] JULIET’S MOTHER [enters the room] Juliet? JULIET O think'st thou we shall ever meet again? ROMEO I doubt it not; and all these woes shall serve 20 For sweet discourses in our time to come10. JULIET’S MOTHER Ho, daughter! Juliet! JULIET [looking out of the window] O God, I have an ill-divining soul! that predicts evil things Methinks I see thee, now thou art below, As one dead in the bottom of a tomb. 25 ROMEO Adieu! JULIET O fortune, fortune! Be fickle, fortune; changeable For then, I hope, thou wilt not keep him long, But send him back. 10 as stories to tell each other later in life 24 Assignment 10 (Romeo and Juliet, short extract) 1. Explain in your own words what Romeo is saying in lines 7 - 9. 2. In line 16, what do “day” and “life” stand for, respectively? - day: - life: 3. Consider Juliet’s words in lines 22 - 24. In what way(s) are they a foreshadowing of the ending of the play? When her parents force her to marry Prince Paris, Juliet turns to Friar Lawrence for help. He gives her a sleeping potion that will make her appear dead for three days. The friar also sends word of this to Romeo in Mantua, telling him to return to Verona and make amends. Juliet takes the potion and her parents, believing her to be dead, bury her in the family crypt. Friar Lawrence’s letter does not reach Romeo, so when a friend tells him that Juliet has died, he buys a deadly poison and decides to go back to Verona in order to kill himself and be united with his dead wife. When he enters the crypt where Juliet lies, he is surprised to see Paris, who has come to mourn the girl he had wanted to marry. Romeo and Paris fight, and the latter is killed. Romeo then takes the poison and dies. Juliet now wakes up from her deep sleep, and seeing Romeo lying dead at her feet, takes his dagger and stabs herself to death. United in their grief over their daughter and son, the Capulets and Montagues finally make peace, thus ending their long feud. The Prince of Verona speaks the final words of the play: A glooming peace this morning with it brings. gloomy The sun, for sorrow, will not show his head. […] For never was a story of more woe pain and sorrow Than this of Juliet and her Romeo. 25  Four famous soliloquies Introductory note A soliloquy (from Latin: "talking by oneself") is a device used in drama when a character speaks to himself or herself, relating their thoughts and feelings, thereby also sharing them with the audience. Other characters, however, are not aware of what is being said. A soliloquy is distinct from a monologue or an aside: a monologue is a speech where one character addresses other characters; an aside is a (usually short) comment by one character towards the audience. Soliloquies were frequently used in plays, but went out of fashion when drama shifted towards realism in the late 18th century. Shakespeare’s plays feature many soliloquies, the most famous being the "To be or not to be" speech in Hamlet. (I) From Richard II: “This England” Written around 1595, Richard II deals with events during the last few years of the reign of Richard II (r. 1377-1399), a king who faced disaster abroad and rebellion at home. Eventually, he was deposed by his cousin, Henry IV, who later had him killed. The play contains one of the most unashamedly patriotic speeches in all of Shakespeare’s work: the speaker is John of Gaunt (king Richard’s uncle and the father of his successor, Henry), who is one of the most powerful noblemen of the country. Towards the end of his life, at a time when he sees England’s power weaken, he praises the extraordinary character of England and her former kings as follows: This royal throne of kings, this sceptered1 isle, This earth of majesty, this seat of Mars, This other Eden, demi-paradise, This fortress built by Nature for herself 5 Against infection and the hand of war, disease This happy breed of men, this little world, This precious stone set in the silver sea, Which serves it in the office of a wall, Or as a moat defensive to a house, Du. slotgracht 10 Against the envy of less happier lands; This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England, This nurse, this teeming womb of royal kings, overflowing Feared by their breed2, and famous by their birth, Renowned for their deeds as far from home, famous 15 For Christian service and true chivalry, knighthood As is the sepulchre in stubborn Jewry tomb // land of the Jews Of the world's ransom, blessed Mary's Son3; This land of such dear souls, this dear, dear land, Dear for her reputation through the world - throughout 1 refers to the sceptre, one of the symbols of kingship 2 feared because of who they are 3 refers to Jesus Christ, son of Mary, the redeemer of mankind 26  Assignment 11 (“This England”) 1. What aspects of England does John of Gaunt refer to when he calls it “this seat of Mars” (line 2) and “this other Eden” (line 3)? - - 2. According to lines 7 - 10, what is the importance of England being an island? 3. Consider line 18, “This land of such dear souls”. (a) Who are these “dear souls”, do you think? (b) What have they been called earlier in this speech? (c) Explain what makes them such “dear souls”. (II) From As You Like It: “All the world’s a stage” As You Like It (believed to have been written in 1599 or early 1600) is a pastoral comedy, i.e. a comedy with an idealized, romantic country setting. It follows its heroine, Rosalind, as she flees persecution in her uncle's court to find safety and eventually love among old and new friends in the Forest of Arden. The play features one of Shakespeare's most famous and oft-quoted speeches (“All the world’s a stage”). The speaker, a melancholy character called Jaques, compares the world to a stage and life to a play, and catalogues the seven stages of a man's life. These are sometimes also referred to as ‘the seven ages of man’. All the world's a stage, And all the men and women merely players. just actors They have their exits and entrances, And one man in his time plays many parts, 5 His acts being seven ages. At first the infant, Mewling and puking in the nurse's arms. crying // throwing up Then, the whining school-boy with his satchel schoolbag And shining morning face, creeping like snail 27  Unwillingly to school. And then the lover, 10 Sighing like furnace, with a woeful ballad an oven // sad Made to his mistress' eyebrow. Then, a soldier, Full of strange oaths, and bearded like the pard,1 Jealous in honour, sudden, and quick in quarrel, Seeking the bubble reputation empty 15 Even in the cannon's mouth. And then, the justice, In fair round belly, with good capon lined2, With eyes severe, and beard of formal cut, Full of wise saws, and modern instances, sayings // examples And so he plays his part. The sixth age shifts 20 Into the lean and slippered pantaloon3, With spectacles on nose, and pouch on side, His youthful hose well saved, a world too wide trousers For his shrunk shank, and his big manly voice, thin legs Turning again towards childish treble, pipes high voice 25 And whistles in his sound. Last scene of all, That ends this strange eventful history, Is second childishness and mere oblivion, obscurity Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans everything. Without Two artistic impressions of the “Seven Ages of Man”, from the 16th century (left) and the 19th century. Assignment 12 (“All the world’s a stage”) 1. Lines 1 - 4 of the speech contain a metaphor in which the world is compared to a stage on which every human being plays their part. Work out this metaphor. the world the stage 1 Full of foreign swear words and with a beard like a lion’s mane 2 fattened on capon (male chicken, castrated and bred to be eaten); capons were often offered to judges in the hope of gaining their favour. 3 thin old man wearing slippers (from Italian pantalone, the archetypal clownish old man in classic Italian comedy) 28  continued  2. Use the grid below to (a) list the seven stages of a man’s life as set out in lines 5 - 29 (“At first, … sans everything”); (b) fill in for the first six stages the words and phrases that are used relating to the way man sounds and looks during each of these six stages. stages of life words/phrases relating to words/phrases relating to how man sounds man looks like / does 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (III) From Hamlet: “To be or not to be” Hamlet (probably written between 1599 and 1601) is a so-called revenge tragedy, a popular genre in Shakespeare’s time. The play (based on a 13 th century Danish source) is set in Denmark and tells how Prince Hamlet takes revenge on his uncle Claudius, who has not only murdered the old king (Hamlet’s father and Claudius’ brother), but also succeeded to the Danish throne and married Gertrude (the old king’s widow and Hamlet’s mother). Before taking action, however, Hamlet hesitates for a long time, not knowing who to believe and what to do. When he finally does act, the result is a bloodshed in which all the major characters, Hamlet himself included, are killed. 29 In his famous soliloquy “To be or not to be”, Hamlet -- confused because he does not know if he can believe what the ghost told him, and if he should act and kill the king, his uncle -- meditates on the subjects of life and death: To be, or not to be: that is the question: Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, Or to take arms against a sea of troubles, 5 And by opposing, end them? To die, to sleep – No more; and by a sleep to say we end The heart-ache, and the thousand natural shocks That flesh is heir to1. 'Tis a consummation fulfilment Devoutly to be wished – to die, to sleep – very strongly 10 To sleep, perchance to dream, ay, there's the rub; difficulty For in that sleep of death what dreams may come When we have shuffled off this mortal coil2, Must give us pause – there's the respect That makes calamity of so long life. disaster 15 For who would bear the whips and scorns of time, The oppressor's wrong, the proud man's contumely, lack of respect The pangs of despised love, the law's delay, The insolence of office, and the spurns rejections That patient merit of the unworthy takes, worth 20 When he himself might his quietus make might kill himself With a bare bodkin? Who would fardels bear, dagger // heavy burdens To grunt and sweat under a weary life, groan But that the dread of something after death, The undiscovered country, from whose bourn border 25 No traveller returns, puzzles the will, confuses And makes us rather bear those ills we have Than fly to others that we know not of? Thus conscience does make cowards of us all; consciousness, awareness And thus the native hue of resolution3 30 Is sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought4, And enterprises of great pitch and moment projects of great importance With this regard their currents turn awry, go the other way And lose the name of action. 1 That are natural to the human body. 2 When we have taken leave of our mortal body 3 And so the natural desire to be firm 4 Is corrupted by reflection/contemplation 30 Poster of the Royal Shakespeare Company’s 2008 production of Hamlet, with David Tennant in the title role. Assignment 13 (“To be or not to be”) 1. Explain the argument in lines 2-5 (“Whether ‘tis … end them”). 2. “To sleep, perchance to dream, ay, there's the rub” (line 10): explain what the “rub” is that Hamlet is thinking of. 3. According to lines 15 -19 (“For who would bear … of the unworthy takes”), there are seven aspects that make “calamity of so long life” (line 14). Say in your own words what is meant by four of these: (a) “the whips and scorns of time” (line 15) (b) “the oppressor’s wrong” (line 16) (c) “the pangs of despised love” (line 17) (d) “the insolence of office” (line 18) continued  31 4. Many people believe that in this famous speech, Hamlet is actually thinking about committing suicide. Find evidence for this reading in the text. 5. Hamlet calls death “The undiscovered country, from whose bourn/No traveller returns” (lines 24- 25). Explain why Shakespeare uses this image and why it is characteristic of his time. - - (IV) From Macbeth: “To-morrow, and to-morrow, and to-morrow” Macbeth (probably written between 1603 and 1607) is a tragedy about a regicide (the murder of a king) and its aftermath. The setting of the play is medieval Scotland. Macbeth is a nobleman who is related to the king. At the beginning of the play, three witches prophesy that one day he will be king himself. Spurred on by his ambitious wife, Macbeth invites the king to his castle, kills him and shifts the blame onto the king’s sons. After he is proclaimed King of Scotland, Macbeth’s ambition and lust for power lead to a reign of terror and finally result in his downfall. His wife eventually goes mad and the king’s sons return to Scotland to claim the throne. In the final battle, Macbeth is killed by Macduff, a nobleman whose entire family he has had killed. Towards the end of the play, when Macbeth is preparing to fight his enemies in what will be the decisive battle, he is told that his wife has died. His voices his thoughts about life and death in a short soliloquy: To-morrow, and to-morrow, and to-morrow, Creeps in this petty pace from day to day, slow To the last syllable of recorded time; written history And all our yesterdays have lighted fools 5 The way to dusty death. Out, out, brief candle! Life's but a walking shadow; a poor player, That struts and frets his hour upon the stage, walks proudly // worries And then is heard no more: it is a tale Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, noise and rage 10 Signifying nothing. 32 Three posters using (parts of) the soliloquy Assignment 14 (“To-morrow, and to-morrow, and to-morrow”) 1. Explain the connection between the repetition of the word “to-morrow” in line 1 and the use of the word “creeps” at the beginning of line 2. 2. In line 4, (a) what is meant by “all our yesterdays” (b) and who are meant by “fools”? 3. What are the four metaphors for “life” that Macbeth uses in lines 5 - 10? - - - - 33 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY Satire in the Age of Reason Jonathan Swift & Gulliver’s Travels Introductory note The Age of Reason, with its emphasis on rationality, produced a great revival of satire in Britain, which was fuelled by the rise of party politics (in the form of the Tory and Whig parties), and also by the formation of the Scriblerus Club, which included some of Britain’s most famous satirists, such as Alexander Pope and Jonathan Swift. The members of this club focused their attention on all that they saw as tedious, narrow-minded, and pedantic in contemporary politics, scholarship and writing. In their hands the biting satire of institutions and individuals became a popular and powerful weapon. Jonathan Swift is considered one of the greatest of Anglo-Irish writers. His great strength lay in journalistic satire and he became one of the most admired and feared satirists of his day. For instance, in his A Modest Proposal , Swift suggests that Irish peasants should be encouraged to sell their own children as food for the rich, as a solution to the "problem" of poverty. His purpose is, of course, to attack indifference of the rich in society to the plight of the desperately poor. In his most famous book, Gulliver's Travels, Swift writes about the flaws in human society in general and English society in particular. The first part of the book (“A Voyage to Lilliput”) is sometimes seen as a children’s classic, with its main character who finds himself in a country inhabited by very short people. Despite its obvious fairy-tale aspects, this part of the story is, in fact, much more. Lilliput stands for the England of Swift’s day, and the “problems” that the Lilliputians face satirically refer to the religious and political issues that deeply divided early 18th century (religious) politics in England. Gulliver taken prisoner by the Lilliputians (Still from a 1996 TV mini-series) Gulliver’s Travels During his first voyage, Lemuel Gulliver is shipwrecked and washed ashore on the coast of Lilliput. While lying unconsciously on the beach, the Lilliputians (whose average height is six inches, i.e. about 15 centimetres), manage to take this “giant” prisoner. However, when it becomes obvious to them that he might help them in their ongoing war with Blefuscu (a country across the water inhabited by similarly small people), Gulliver is released. In the following passage, the king’s principal minister (called Reldresal) pays him a visit to explain two important aspects of his country. One morning, about a fortnight after I had obtained my liberty, Reldresal, principal secretary (as they style him) for private affairs, came to my house … and desired I would give him an hours audience …. I offered to lie down that he might the more conveniently reach my ear, but he chose rather to let me hold him in my hand during 5 our conversation. … [He told me that] “as flourishing a condition as we may appear to be in to foreigners, we labour under two mighty evils: a violent faction at home, 34  and the danger of an invasion, by a most potent enemy, from abroad. As to the first, you are to understand, that for about seventy moons past there have been two struggling parties in this empire, under the names of Tramecksan and Slamecksan, 10 from the high and low heels of their shoes, by which they distinguish themselves. It is alleged, indeed, that the high heels are most agreeable to our ancient constitution; but, however this be, his majesty has determined to make use only of low heels in the administration of the government, and all offices in the gift of the crown, as you cannot but observe; and particularly that his majesty’s imperial heels are lower at 15 least by a drurr than any of his court (drurr is a measure about the fourteenth part of an inch). The animosities between these two parties run so high, that they will neither eat, nor drink, nor talk with each other. We compute the Tramecksan, or high heels, to exceed us in number; but the power is wholly on our side. We apprehend his imperial highness, the heir to the crown, to have some tendency 20 towards the high heels; at least we can plainly discover that one of his heels is higher than the other, which gives him a hobble in his gait. Now, in the midst of these intestine disquiets, we are threatened with an invasion from the island of Blefuscu, which is the other great empire of the universe, almost as large and powerful as this of his majesty. [… and with whom we have] been engaged in a most obstinate war 25 for six-and-thirty moons past. It began upon the following occasion. It is allowed on all hands, that the primitive way of breaking eggs, before we eat them, was upon the larger end; but his present majesty’s grandfather, while he was a boy, going to eat an egg, and breaking it according to the ancient practice, happened to cut one of his fingers. Whereupon the emperor his father published an edict, commanding 30 all his subjects, upon great penalties, to break the smaller end of their eggs. The people so highly resented this law, that our histories tell us, there have been six rebellions raised on that account; wherein one emperor lost his life, and another his crown. These civil commotions were constantly fomented by the monarchs of Blefuscu; and when they were quelled, the exiles always fled for refuge to that 35 empire. It is computed that eleven thousand persons have at several times suffered death, rather than submit to break their eggs at the smaller end. Many hundred large volumes have been published upon this controversy: but the books of the Big- Endians have been long forbidden, and the whole party rendered incapable by law of holding employments. During the course of these troubles, the emperors of 40 Blefuscu did frequently expostulate by their ambassadors, accusing us of making a schism in religion, by offending against a fundamental doctrine of our great prophet Lustrog […]. This, however, is thought to be a mere strain upon the text; for the words are these: ‘that all true believers break their eggs at the convenient end.’ And which is the convenient end, seems, in my humble opinion to be left to every man’s 45 conscience, or at least in the power of the chief magistrate to determine. Now, the Big-Endian exiles have found so much credit in the emperor of Blefuscu’s court, and so much private assistance and encouragement from their party here at home, that a bloody war has been carried on between the two empires for six-and-thirty moons, with various success; during which time we have lost forty capital ships, and a much 50 a greater number of smaller vessels, together with thirty thousand of our best 35  seamen and soldiers; and the damage received by the enemy is reckoned to be somewhat greater than ours. However, they have now equipped a numerous fleet, and are just preparing to make a descent upon us; and his imperial majesty, placing great confidence in your valour and strength, has commanded me to lay this account 55 of his affairs before you.” Assignment 15 (Gulliver’s Travels, extract) 1. After reading the text, use the Internet to find out who or what in English history between circa 1620 and 1720 are meant by: (a) “the Tramecksan and Slamecksan” (line 9) (b) “the island of Blefuscu” (lines 22-23) (c) the “emperor [who] lost his life” (line 32) (d) “the Big-Endians”(line 38) and the people who “break the smaller end of their eggs”(lines 30- 31) 2. Judging from lines 7-21 [“As to the first … in his gait”] how did Swift feel about the political differences in the England of his time? 3. Judging from lines 25-31 [“It began upon … of their eggs”] and 42-45 [“This, however … every man’s conscience”], how did Swift feel about the religious wars going on in his time? THE ROMANTIC PERIOD 36 Romantic Poetry Wordsworth, Shelley and Keats Introductory note The five poems in this section of the reader represent the characteristic features of English Romantic poetry, which are love and worship of Nature (and often dislike for the urban life), an interest in ordinary people and the innocence of children, love for the supernatural and the mystical, an interest in an idealized past (often the Middle Ages) and exotic cultures, and, perhaps most important of all, the use of simple verse forms and ordinary language. Finally, as poetry came to be regarded as the spontaneous expression of the poet's own subjective feelings, most of the classical rules and conventions that had dominated poetry since the Renaissance are no longer visible. The beautiful, largely unspoilt landscape of the Lake District where Wordsworth was born and spent most of his life,greatly influenced his ideas about nature and poetry. WILLIAM WORDSWORTH These three relatively simple poems contain the essence of Wordsworth’s views on the beauty of nature, the unspoiled quality of life in the country and the innocence of children. (1) “I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud” I wandered lonely as a cloud That floats on high o'er vales and hills, valleys When all at once I saw a crowd, A host, of golden daffodils; 5 Beside the lake, beneath the trees, Fluttering and dancing in the breeze. Continuous as the stars that shine And twinkle on the Milky Way, They stretched in never-ending line 10 Along the margin of a bay: edge Ten thousand saw I at a glance, Tossing their heads in sprightly dance. lively, energetic The waves beside them danced, but they Outdid the sparkling waves in glee. joy 15 A poet could not but be gay, happy In such a jocund company: cheerful 37  I gazed - and gazed - but little thought What wealth the show to me had brought: For oft, when on my couch I lie 20 In vacant or in pensive mood, not thinking of anything // thinking deeply They flash upon that inward eye Which is the bliss of solitude; the joy of being alone And then my heart with pleasure fills, And dances with the daffodils. Assignment 16 (“I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud”) 1. Is this an example of lyrical poetry or not? Explain your answer. 2. What element makes this a typically Romantic poem? 3. Find an example of a simile in the first stanza of the poem. [Look up what a simile is in your Survey!] 4. The poet describes nature in human terms, as if lifeless things were capable of having the same emotions that he has. (a) What is the literary term for this device? (b) Find examples of this device in each of the four stanzas of the poem. - - - - (2) “She Dwelt Among the Untrodden Ways” She dwelt among the untrodden ways [untrodden: from to tread = to walk] Beside the springs of Dove, [river in northern England] 38  A Maid whom there were none to praise And very few to love: 5 A violet by a mossy stone Half hidden from the eye! — Fair as a star, when only one Is shining in the sky. She lived unknown, and few could know 10 When Lucy ceased to be; But she is in her grave, and, oh, The difference to me! Assignment 17 (“She Dwelt Among the Untrodden Ways”) 1. What element makes this a typically Romantic poem? 2. In each of the three stanzas, find words and phrases that make clear that the girl called Lucy lived a quiet and rather hidden life. - - - 3. What contrast is expressed in the final stanza? 4. Find an example of a metaphor in the poem. (3) “It Is a Beauteous Evening, Calm and Free” It is a beauteous evening, calm and free, The holy time is quiet as a Nun 39  Breathless with adoration; the broad sun worship Is sinking down in its tranquillity; peace, calm 5 The gentleness of heaven broods o'er the Sea; hangs Listen! the mighty Being is awake, And doth with his eternal motion make A sound like thunder—everlastingly. Dear child! dear Girl! that walkest with me here, 10 If thou appear untouched by solemn thought, profound, holy Thy nature is not therefore less divine: holy Thou liest in Abraham's bosom1 all the year; And worshipp'st at the Temple's inner shrine2, God being with thee when we know it not. Assignment 18 (“It Is a Beauteous Evening, Calm and Free”) 1. What form of poem is this? Explain your answer. 2. Nature and God were closely connected ideas for Wordsworth. How is this brought out in the way the poet describes ‘time’ (lines 2-3) and ‘the sea’ (5-8)? 3. In lines 10 and 11, the poet comments on the “nature” of the child walking beside him. What is his conclusion? 4. What two elements make this a typically Romantic poem? - - 1 biblical expression, refers to the joys of heaven 2 the holiest part of the temple, forbidden for ordinary people 40 PERCY BYSSHE SHELLEY As it takes the reader far away in both place and time, Shelley’s poem Ozymandias is characteristic of the Romantic interest in both the past and exotic cultures. However, the poet’s real theme is much more contemporary, and even quite modern. Ozymandias I met a traveller from an antique land Who said: Two vast and trunkless legs of stone without a body Stand in the desert. Near them, on the sand, Half sunk, a shattered visage lies, whose frown, face 5 And wrinkled lip, and sneer of cold command, unpleasant look Tell that its sculptor well those passions read feelings Which yet survive, stamped on these lifeless things, The hand that mocked them, and the heart that fed; And on the pedestal these words appear: base of the statue 10 “My name is Ozymandias1, king of kings: Look on my works, ye Mighty, and despair!” Nothing beside remains. Round the decay Of that colossal wreck, boundless and bare empty The lone and level sands stretch far away. Artist’s photo shop impression of what the scene of Shelley’s poem may have looked like. Assignment 19 (Ozymandias) 1. In this short poem, there are three speakers. Who are they? - - - 1 (The Egyptian pharaoh Ramesses II or Ramesses the Great , who reigned during the 13 th century BC, was known in Greek sources as Ozymandias. He is often regarded as the greatest and most powerful pharaoh in Egyptian history.) 41  continued  2. Consider line 8, “The hand that mocked them, and the heart that fed [them]”. (a) What two-word combination in lines 1 - 7 does “them” refer back to? (b) To whom did “the hand” belong? (c) To whom did “the heart” belong? 3. Point out the irony in lines 10-11. 4. Is has been said that the main theme of the poem is that the power of art is greater than any political or economic power. (a) Find evidence for this reading in the poem. (b) What do you think of the suggestion that art (in writing, painting, music or any other form) carries more weight than political or economic power? JOHN KEATS For many Romantic poets, the folklore associated with medieval tales and songs about knights, beautiful ladies and creatures from the ‘other world’ (such as elves and fairies) were a source of inspiration. Keats’s art ballad La Belle Dame Sans Merci is one of the most famous examples. La Belle Dame Sans Merci O what can ail thee, knight-at-arms, what is wrong with you Alone and palely loitering? walking about without purpose The sedge has withered from the lake, grass And no birds sing. 5 O what can ail thee, knight-at-arms, So haggard and so woe-begone? tired // worried The squirrel’s granary is full, And the harvest’s done. 42  I see a lily on thy brow, 10 With anguish moist and fever-dew, wet from suffering And on thy cheeks a fading rose Fast withereth too. I met a lady in the meads, meadows, fields Full beautiful—a faery’s child, 15 Her hair was long, her foot was light, And her eyes were wild. I made a garland for her head, circle of flowers And bracelets too, and fragrant zone; nice-smelling belt She looked at me as she did love, 20 And made sweet moan. I set her on my pacing steed, horse And nothing else saw all day long, For sidelong would she bend, and sing A faery’s song. 25 She found me roots of relish sweet, tasting sweet And honey wild, and manna-dew, wondrous food And sure in language strange she said— ‘I love thee true’. She took me to her elfin grot, 30 And there she wept and sighed full sore, sadly And there I shut her wild, wild eyes With kisses four. And there she lullèd me asleep, sang me to sleep And there I dreamed—Ah! woe betide!— 35 The latest dream I ever dreamt last On the cold hill side. I saw pale kings and princes too, Pale warriors, death-pale were they all; They cried—‘La Belle Dame sans Merci 40 Thee hath in thrall!’ has enslaved you I saw their starved lips in the gloam, dead // dusk With horrid warning gapèd wide, wide open And I awoke and found me here, On the cold hill’s side. 45 And this is why I sojourn here, stay Alone and palely loitering, Though the sedge is withered from the lake, And no birds sing. 43  Painting by Sir Frank Dicksee, based on Keats’s poem (1902). Assignment 20 (La Belle Dame Sans Merci) 1. When the speaker in the first three stanzas (lines 1-12) finds the knight on the hill side, the latter is obviously in a bad state. What words and phrases serve to make this clear? 2. What is the symbolic meaning of the lily (line 9) and the rose (line 11)? 3. In stanzas four to nine (lines 13 - 36) the knight tells the story of how he was seduced by “the Beautiful Lady without Mercy”. Find evidence in each of these six stanzas to support this. - (lines 13 - 16) - (lines 17 - 20) - (lines 21 -24) - (lines 25 - 28) - (lines 29 - 32) - (lines 33 - 36) 4. Explain the meaning of what the knight “saw” in his dream (lines 37-42). 5. What time of year is it in the poem and how is this related to the theme of the poem? 44 THE VICTORIAN AGE Victorian Poetry Alfred, Lord Tennyson - Ulysses Introductory note Ulysses is a poem in blank verse, written in 1833 and published in 1842 in Tennyson’s well-received second volume of poetry. It is a good illustration of the dramatic monologue form that was very popular among Victorian poets. Facing old age, the mythical hero Ulysses (the Latin name of the Greek hero Odysseus) describes his discontent and restlessness upon returning to his kingdom after his far-ranging travels and adventures following the siege and destruction of Troy. Despite his reunion with his wife and son, Ulysses yearns to explore again. He reflects on his age and eventual death, and his longing for further experience and knowledge. In the final section, Ulysses calls on his former sailors to join him on another quest. He gives no guarantees as to their fate, but promises an attempt to relive their heroic past, as he is determined "To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield". Tennyson’s Victorian contemporaries (and, indeed, many people in later generations) were inspired by this kind of courage and persistence. Read in this way, Ulysses promotes the ever questing spirit of man, even in old age, and expresses a refusal to resign and face life passively. It little profits that an idle king, not doing much By this still hearth, among these barren crags, rocks Matched with an agèd wife, I mete and dole make and give Unequal laws unto a savage race, unjust 5 That hoard, and sleep, and feed, and know not me. secretly collect food and money I cannot rest from travel: I will drink Life to the lees: all times I have enjoyed dregs Greatly, have suffered greatly, both with those That loved me, and alone, on shore, and when 10 Through scudding drifts the rainy Hyades sudden currents // nymphs that bring rain Vexed the dim sea: I am become a name; troubled // dark For always roaming with a hungry heart Much have I seen and known; cities of men And manners, climates, councils, governments, 15 Myself not least, but honoured of them all; And drunk delight of battle with my peers, equals Far on the ringing plains of windy Troy. filled with noise I am a part of all that I have met; Yet all experience is an arch where through 20 Gleams that untravelled world whose margin fades shines // boundary For ever and for ever when I move. How dull it is to pause, to make an end, To rust unburnished, not to shine in use! without any shine to it As though to breathe were life! Life piled on life 25 Were all too little, and of one to me 45  Little remains: but every hour is saved From that eternal silence, something more, A bringer of new things; and vile it were disgusting For some three suns to store and hoard myself, three years 30 And this grey spirit yearning in desire old // deeply desiring To follow knowledge like a sinking star, Beyond the utmost bound of human thought. furthest boundary (…) There lies the port; the vessel puffs her sail: blows There gloom the dark, broad seas. My mariners, sailors 35 Souls that have toiled, and wrought, and thought with me— worked hard That ever with a frolic welcome took carefree The thunder and the sunshine, and opposed Free hearts, free foreheads—you and I are old; Old age hath yet his honour and his toil; 40 Death closes all: but something ere the end, before Some work of noble note, may yet be done, importance Not unbecoming men that strove with Gods. inappropriate for // fought The lights begin to twinkle from the rocks: The long day wanes: the slow moon climbs: the deep fades 45 Moans round with many voices. Come, my friends, groans 'T is not too late to seek a newer world. Push off, and sitting well in order smite attack The sounding furrows; for my purpose holds i.e. the waves // goal To sail beyond the sunset, and the baths 50 Of all the western stars, until I die. It may be that the gulfs will wash us down: waves // drown us It may be we shall touch the Happy Isles, Isles of the Blessed And see the great Achilles, whom we knew. Greek hero killed in the battle of Troy Though much is taken, much abides; and though remains 55 We are not now that strength which in old days Moved earth and heaven, that which we are, we are; One equal temper of heroic hea