Medieval Criticism in Focus PDF

Medieval Criticism in Focus (2) Dr Islam Aly El-Naggar Faculty of Arts (2nd Yr) (2024-2025) University Email: [email protected] According to Medieval criticism may be divided into five broad periods: 1. Late classical followed by (Dark Ages): (1st century...

Medieval Criticism in Focus (2) Dr Islam Aly El-Naggar Faculty of Arts (2nd Yr) (2024-2025) University Email: [email protected] According to Medieval criticism may be divided into five broad periods: 1. Late classical followed by (Dark Ages): (1st century BC to 7th century AD). 2. Carolingian (8th century to 10th century). 3. High medieval (11th century to 12th century). 4. (low Middle Ages): Scholastic (13th century to 14th century). 5. (low Middle Ages): Humanist (14th century to 16th century). Medieval theory was based on divine plan* in which the function of literature was supposed to help an individual to become a better Christian. [Literary] Criticism in the Medieval era has been hindered by the coherence of the theologically explained universe. Discuss illustrating the main characteristics/features of Criticism in the Medieval era/Ages. … according to the rules of biblical interpretations  Main Points: The roots of “Formal Criticism”/Aestheticism/Comparative Methodology What is the main function of the medieval commentators/critic? Biblical Criticism & Canonization of the Classics The Middle Ages are not a uniform period Platonism vs Aristotelianism Scholasticism vs Humanism  The Position of Poetry in the Medieval Ages Poetry was considered a prophecy or revelation Equal to philosophy in the old world. A considerable amount of medieval criticism dealt with biblical criticism and mysticism* and allegorical reading* of works. The poets were theologians, and their poetry was the overflow of moments of inspiration. Poetry existed with and in grammar, rhetoric, logic, and philosophy. The Fate of the Classical Legacy in the Medieval Ages Literary criticism does not disappear during the Middle Ages. The classical tradition survives the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. Most of the great Latin authors will remain a part of the cultural tradition of Europe. Many pagan literatures /ˈpeɪɡən/ were incorporated into the medieval ethos (character). [what is the impact of this on Criticism?] √√√ √√√ Classical elements* were (1)absorbed in the Medieval Age, (2) sometimes modified (3) and later became a part of it. √√√ The fate of the Greek authors is different*? Generally speaking, they will survive only through (1)Latin versions (2)imitations of their works. Most of the Greek authors are unknown during the Middle Ages (this is the case of Homer) Or will reach the West only through: (1)mangled versions and (2)derivations /derəˈveɪʃən/ (as happened with Aristotle's Poetics). √√√What are the key concepts of classical poetics preserved in the medieval Criticism? 1. The Platonic and Aristotelian conception of art as imitation* 2. The concept of decorum* (from Horace*). 3. The rhetorical tradition* of classical times, adapting it to its own needs.  √√√√Decorum … Horace Decorum means what is fitting or proper … The work’s value lies in that it will strengthen and ennoble rather than weaken and scandalize, its audience. Thus, if you are a tragedian, your tone must be serious, your language heightened, and your characters noble. For Horace, decorum calls for a “proper” relationship between form and content, expression and thought, style and subject matter, diction and character.  Medieval Genres artes poeticae, artes dictaminis* (or treatises on letter- writing). artes praedicandi* [sermon format.]which follow classical authorities such as Cicero*, Horace or Quintilian*: The "prescriptive" side of medieval literary theory (manuals giving instructions for composition, focusing their attention on the prospective author).  Medieval Textual Criticism What is the main object/texts of such criticism? The tradition of textual commentary (of the classics, but above all of the Bible and of theological writings). This aspect of medieval criticism directs its attention not to the way works should be, but to the way they are. Not to works which must be written, but to works which are already written and are of religious or moral significance. The medieval commentators* face problems which are peculiar to their own age, different from those of the classical writers The medieval commentators [not critics]must accommodate the tradition of Pagan learning and the authority of the Scripture (why?) So as to assimilate the culture of the past without any danger to belief. Since the ultimate basis for medieval knowledge is faith in the authority of a book, of the Scripture, they must also ascertain the degree of authority which must be given to each kind of text, and solve the critical problems posed by an interpretation of the Bible [Exegesis*].  Exegesis vs Hermeneutics Hermeneutics: The word most often refers to how to [aesthetics*] interpret the Bible or other sacred texts from other religions. Hermeneutics is deciding which principles we will use in order to interpret the text Exegesis: … refers to the [actual] interpretation of a specific Biblical text.  (Who were) the Medieval critics? Most of medieval critics are priests or monks Many are theologians whose concern is never far from religion and from the authority of the Church and the Bible. This hegemony of Christian authority over critical thought is what characterises the Middle Ages as a period in the history of literary theory and criticism. The Middle Ages are not a uniform period…. From the point of view of literary criticism, we may divide it into three periods: 1) The Dark Ages, 1. Late classical (1st century BC to 7th century AD). & the Carolingian from the sixth to the eighth century. Very few documents from this period have reached us. A few isolated scholars of great influence. We may conveniently end the Dark Ages with the so-called Carolingian renaissance* of the late eighth century, fostered by the Englishman Alcuin of York [advisor of Charlemagne/]* (c. 735-804). 2) The High Middle Ages 2) The High Middle Ages, up to the 12th century. Although written texts from this period are more abundant, it is still characterized by: Cultural isolation and stagnation, Little variety in debate and little knowledge of the classics. The dominant tradition in philosophical thought is Platonic, There is a lack of faith in human agency* [the core of humanism*] A reliance on authority and revelation. 3) The Lower Middle Ages … From the 12th century on... Scholasticism vs Humanism From the 12th century on, the situation changes somewhat: There is in Western Europe, and above all in France, an increase in cultural dynamism which has been called "the twelfth-century Renaissance." New, highly organized monastic orders are founded, increasing communication among the different regions and countries. Universities appear for the first time, and the system of study is based on reading and commenting texts. The importance of the disciplines connected to textual study* will therefore increase. √√√ Neoplatonism*(Plotinus 204-270 C.E.) Augustine (354–430) began to assimilate Neoplatonism into Christian doctrine in order to give a rational interpretation of Christian faith. Thus, medieval philosophy was born of the confluence of Greek (and to a lesser extent of Roman) philosophy and Christianity. Scholasticism /skəˈlastɪˌsɪz(ə)m/ noun the system of theology and philosophy taught in medieval European universities, based on Aristotelian logic and the writings of the early Christian Fathers and emphasizing tradition and dogma. narrow-minded insistence on traditional doctrine.  Humanism /ˈhjuːmənɪz(ə)m/ - a rationalist outlook or system of thought attaching prime importance to human rather than divine or supernatural matters. - a Renaissance cultural movement which turned away from medieval scholasticism and revived interest in ancient Greek and Roman thought. -(among some contemporary writers) a system of thought criticized as being centred on the notion of the rational, autonomous self and ignoring the conditioned nature of the individual.  *The Scholastic philosophy Little by little, the philosophical texts of Aristotle will become known in the West, and Aristotle will become "the Philosopher" for the later Middle Ages. The scholastic philosophy of the universities faces the problem of adapting Aristotelian thought to Christian dogma. This is considered a one more sign of an increasing movement towards humanism*, towards a greater reliance on the ability and goodness of individual human intention and agency. The humanist influence is already clearly strong in the later critics of the Middle Ages, such as Dante Alighieri or Giovanni Boccaccio, who are no longer churchmen.  Periodization* Problem Indeed, divisions in history are always artificial to a point, and the Middle Ages shade into the Renaissance just as the High medieval period merges imperceptibly into the Lower Middle Ages.  The Fate of the Classical Legacy in the Medieval Ages ❑St Augustine ❑St Jerome ❑Bede the Venerable: ❑Boethius (c. 480-525) ❑Isidore of Seville The Roman Manlius Severinus Boethius bəʊˈiːθɪəs (c. 480-525) He wrote De consolatione philosophiae (The Consolation of Philosophy) Stands for/epitomizes the most popular tract of the Middle Ages. This treatise was written in prison while he awaited execution, and it explains how the contemplation of God can reconcile us to our miseries down on earth. What is the value/estimation of De consolatione philosophiae? Boethius preserved classical knowledge/theories through his Latin translations and comments on some works of Aristotle in an age in which classical knowledge was rapidly disappearing.  Augustine Augustine is the greatest of the Fathers of the Church, and his influence on Christian thought has been enormous: His works served, together with the Bible, as a reference background for commentators scattered all over Europe. His works also provide: models on issues of critical theory, such as problems of interpretation and authority,  Isidore of Seville The Etymological Method The author of Etymologiae, an encyclopedic work which deals with just about everything on earth. Etymologiae was the standard encyclopedia for the early Middle Ages … it includes a discussion of the nature of poetic fiction and a treatise of rhetoric. The etymological method*: to explain the meaning of things … A standard way of beginning any commentary would be to explain the real or supposed etymology of the title of the work or of the name of the author.  The Venerable Bede (673-735) The Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (“Ecclesiastical History of the English People”), which is the first history of England. He also wrote many treatises on education, lesson books and commentaries of sacred texts. One basic problem of early Christian thought was the integration of the Biblical and Christian tradition with the classical heritage. A way of assimilating both traditions was to draw comparisons between classical and Hebrew authors. This might be the primitive form of comparative literature studies* Saint Jerome*, the translator of the Bible, was fond of such comparisons.  Bede’s Comparisons … examples from the Bible Traditionally, the figures of rhetoric were exemplified with instances taken from the classical authors: Bede takes examples from the Bible. Bede also compares the book of Job to a tragedy. The Pentateuch* (The first five books of the Old Testament ) to a heroic poem [?] The Ecclesiastes* to an elegy. In his rhetorical work De schematibus et tropis. Bede takes the same approach, showing the richness of the Bible both in its variety of literary genres and its elaborate use of language.  √√√Bede’s Comparisons … Literary Genres Bede's choice of genres does not coincide everywhere with Jerome's: some of the psalms are elegies, Job is a heroic poem which uses the "mixed" mode of treatment (narrative + dialogue) The Song of Songs is a biblical drama Ecclesiastes is a didactic poem. Matching Hebrew against Classical history, the Christian thinkers drew the conclusion that Hebrew history was older; therefore, Hebrew civilization, including literature and poetry, anticipated the classics*. * Evaluating pagan literature*was more problematic for medieval thinkers. The literary canon received from the classics had to be handled with care.  √√√ The Medieval Canon The classical authors were usually given a moralizing interpretation. Sometimes this was difficult to do, and then the commentators had to accommodate their categories, In so doing, these became more complex. Ovid, for instance, was a difficult author because of his immorality. A medieval commentator of Ovid's Heroides tries to (accommodate it to the medieval cannon); interpret it as a work of "ethics": √√√ The roots of Allegorical mode of reading (1) He uses the example of Penelope* to discuss lawful love, the example of Canace* to discuss unlawful love, and the example of Phyllis* to discuss foolish love. He includes two of the forms, foolish and unlawful love, not for their own sake, but in order to commend the third. Thus, in commending lawful love he criticizes foolish and unlawful love. Here Ovid cannot be read literally: some of the letters must have an ironical sense.  Also, Mysticism … Mystical Reading* 1. The experience of mystical union or direct communion with ultimate reality reported by mystics. 2 : the belief that direct knowledge of God, spiritual truth, or ultimate reality can be attained through subjective experience (such as intuition or insight). Mystical interpretation??? √√√ The roots of Aestheticism: form vs content We see that occasional commentators accept poetic pleasure as a sufficient justification. But this purely aesthetic aim* of this work is suspect form a purely Christian viewpoint, once we take into account the subject of the work, carnal* and worldly love, and another commentator asks: (4) Why should the young recruit in Christ's army subject his impressionable mind to the writing of Ovid, in which even though gold can be found among the dung, yet the foulness that clings to the gold defiles the seeker, even though it is the gold he is after?  Conclusion The establishment of a canon of classical authors is based therefore on their usefulness from the point of view of Christian education. According to Augustine, Cassiodorus and Rabanus Maurus, the chief justification for the study of the classics and other secular letters was as a preparation for the study of the Bible. In the words of Conrad of Hirsau, the nourishing milk you draw from the poets may provide you with an opportunity for taking solid food in the form of more serious readings.  Glossary Classical Decorum/propriety Horatian Terms/Concepts Imitation/Mimesis Hermeneutics vs Exegesis Carolingian renaissance human agency Pentateuch  Glossary Humanism is a philosophical stance that emphasizes the individual and social potential and agency of human beings. It considers human beings as the starting point for serious moral and philosophical inquiry. … To be extended, extrapolated, and expounded in the Renaissance Criticism.  Glossary Pentateuch /ˈpɛntətjuːk/ The first five books of the Old Testament (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy). Traditionally ascribed to Moses, it is now held by scholars to be a compilation from texts of the 9th to 5th centuries BC. Jewish name Torah Ecclesiastes Pronunciation /ɪˌkliːzɪˈastiːz/ A book of the Bible traditionally attributed to Solomon, consisting largely of reflections on the vanity of human life. Psalm -A sacred song or hymn, in particular any of those contained in the biblical Book of Psalms and used in Christian and Jewish worship.  Glossary “Canonization” refers to the way and the process in which literary works become canons, that is to say, literary works will experience the repeated reading by readers, long-term studies by critics and scholars, thus eventually being accepted and recognized as talented and original creative works by the authorities.  Glossary Formal Criticism: a critical approach, doctrine, or technique that places heavy emphasis on style, form, or technique in art or literature, seeing these as more important than or even determining content.