Earth Science Past Paper PDF

**EXOGENOUS PROCESSES** ***[Exogenous]*** - processes on or near the surface \- influenced by *[gravity], [wind,] [water] & [organisms]* \- can cause wiping of inhabiting organisms **KINDS OF EXOGENOUS PROCESSES** **[1. Weathering]** - disintegration of rocks, soil & minerals together with othe...

**EXOGENOUS PROCESSES** ***[Exogenous]*** - processes on or near the surface \- influenced by *[gravity], [wind,] [water] & [organisms]* \- can cause wiping of inhabiting organisms **KINDS OF EXOGENOUS PROCESSES** **[1. Weathering]** - disintegration of rocks, soil & minerals together with other materials through subsystems \- **differential weathering**; rate difference of wearing down depending on *[rock strength & resistance]* \- possible without movement/transportation a. \- caused by *[temperature]* & *[pressure]* \- can be caused by *[water & ice]* scraping rocks \- change in size or shape b. \- *new or secondary **minerals*** develop and/or replace original properties in rocks \- ***Ex.*** = **Oxidation** - reaction in contact with oxygen = **Hydrolysis** - breakdown due to water = **Acid Rain** - naturally occurring carbonic rain that can corrode metal & stone \- ***Ex.*** ***Acid Rain*** [H~2~CO~3~ △ CaCO~3~] \--\> **Ca^+2^ + 2HCO~3~** \- **Carbonic Acid**([H~2~CO~3~)] \- **Calcite** ([CaCO~3~)] \- **Calcium Ions** [(Ca^+2^]**)** \- **Hyrogen Carbon Trioxide** [(2HCO~3~)] IMG\_256  **[2. Dissolution]** - rocks in dissolving state \- creates [*stalactites*(above)], [*stalagmites*(below)], *[columns] & [flowstones]* \- **Karst Regions**; dissolved landscape of soluble rocks **[3. Frost Wedging]** - physical weathering through f[reezing & thawing] of water in **crevices and fissures** \- cycle of freeze-thaw causes *[progressive widening]* and create **fracturing, disintegration & fragmentation** \- *[water]* expands **9%** its volume when frozen \- *[water expands through:]* **hydrogen bonds** pushing molecules farther apart from each other; creating ***[stable hexagonal crystal lattice structure]*** **[4. Erosion]** - surface is worn away by *[wind], [water], & [ice]* \- moves **rock debris & soil** \- occurs during *[rainfall], [runoff], [rivers], [seawater intrusion], [freezing & thawing], [hurricanes], [animal migration] & [human works]* a. *-* allow **saltation**; bouncing of rocks due to current \- ***Elements:*** = **Sediment Load** - water sediments = **Suspended Load** - floating sediments = **Bed Load** - heavy sediments that cannot float = **Dissolved Load** - settled sediments at the end of water flows b. \- **suspension**; wind carrying soil particles \- **surface creep**; wind rolling particles on a surface c. \- **wave train**; group of waves of similar wavelengths traveling in a *fixed* direction d. \- ***Elements:*** = **Glaciers** - large chunks of moving ice \- accumulation & compression of snow to ice that increases in thickness \- consists **10%** of Earth's surface = **Alpine** - glaciers in *[high altitude mountains]* moving **downward** = **Continental** - glaciers in *[polar regions]* moving **outward** II. **ENDOGENOUS PROCESSES** ***[Endogenous]*** - processes inside the Earth \- influenced by *[thermal energy]* \- *[surface to core]* is **approx. 6371 km** **EFFECTS:** \- *recycling & renewal* of ground resources \- creates landmasses \- release of *[geothermal energy]* \- *[volcanic eruptions]* releases minerals & creates **fertile soil** ***[Meteorites]*** - space debris from *[asteroids], [comets], [meteoroid]* that withstood Earth's magnetic field \- contains **10% iron** and mostly **nickel** ***[Seismic Waves]*** - energy waves by *constant ground movement* \- originates from *[earthquakes], [eruptions], & [explosions]* \- called **earthquake waves** and classified to ***[surface waves]*** and ***[body waves]*** \- movement differs by *material composition* \- **less dense** materials create **less output** \- creates **refraction**; bending of waves A. ***Surface Waves*** = Rayleigh Waves = Love Waves B. ***Body Waves*** = **Primary Waves** - first waves ***(6km/s)*** \- passes through all kinds of matter \- *[compressional waves]*; expansion & compression = **Secondary Waves** - second waves ***(3.5km/s)*** \- passes through only solids \- *[transverse waves]*; rising & descending **SECTIONS OF EARTH** \- contains different *characteristics* for **optimal structure** \- *most volcanic activity* occur in the **mantle & core** \- studied through *[meteorites & seismic waves]* with tools for recording movement \- mostly **70%-80% iron** \- classified in **compositional** & **mechanical** = **Compositional** - difference in composition = **Mechanical** - strength of rocks & physical state of layers ***[Compositional Layers]*** - Crust, Mantle & Core \- affected by *[rock composition], [temperature], [pressure], & [percent volume]* 1. \- made of *[silicates]* \- **0.8%** of Earth's volume; **2.83 g/cm^3^** of density \- consists of **[Continental & Oceanic]** = **[Continental]** - made of *granite and gneiss* \- **20km - 70km** thickness; **[2.7 g/cm^3^]** density \- rich in elements *[Si & K]*, low in *Mg, Fe & Ca* = **[Oceanic]** - made of *basalt and gabbro* \- **7km - 10km** thickness; **[2.9 g/cm^3^]** density \- consists **65%** of planet's crust = **Subduction** - constant geologic process of *[denser plates]* moving under *[less dense plates]* \- *[oceanic-continental]* & *[oceanic-oceanic]* convergences \- plates are always **oceanic** & collides with plates \- appears in **subduction zones** in *[trenches]* 2. \- **83%** of Earth's volume; **4.53 g/cm^3^** of density \- made of *[rocky materials]*, *[metal ions]* and elements *[O], [Si], [Fe], [Mg]* \- consists of **[Upper, Middle & Lower]** = [**Upper**] - 400 km \- location of detected *P & S Waves* \- **low-velocity zone**; made of molten materials = **[Middle]** - 400km - 700km \- known as *[transition zone]* \- boundary of Upper and Lower = **[Lower]** - 2900km \- made of *mostly dense & solid materials* 3. \- **16.2%** of Earth's volume; **10.72 g/cm^3^** of density \- rich in elements *[Fe & Ni]* with traces of *Si, S & O* **FACTORS (Temperature & Pressure)** 1. ***Crust*** **Temp**: 10ºC - 20ºC/km **Pres**: 1 atm 2. ***Mantle*** **Temp**: 3000ºC **Pres**: 1.37M 3. ***Core*** **Temp**: 4000ºC **Pres**: 3M ***[Mechanical Layers]*** - physical state of substances \- dependent on *[temperature]* 1. **Lithosphere** - *"l[ithos]"* meaning rock \- coolest part of Earth \- outermost layer filled with **rocks** \- *stronger and more rigid* than **asthenosphere** 2. **Asthenosphere** - *"[asthenosphere"]* meaning weak \- made of weaker rocks that can be deformed due to *[temperature & pressure]* \- **asthenosphere rocks**; plastic-like rocks, easily flowing and deformed 3. **Mesosphere** *- "[mesos]"* meaning middle \- solid region of **high** *[temperature & pressure]* \- located at the *[mantle]*, under **asthenosphere**, below **outer core** \- rocks are *powerful & resistant* due to *[pressure]* 4. **Outer Core** - fluid layer surrounding **inner core** \- *low **pressure***; *high **temperature*** \- *[Iron-Nickel]* composition at a **molten state** 5. **Inner Core** - solid center & hotter than the *[sun]* \- **1220km** in radius \- *high **pressure***; *high **temperature*** \- *[Iron-Nickel]* composition at a **solid state** due to *[pressure]* preventing **[atom separation]** **[Convection Current]** - heat-driven cycles in the *[mantle]*, *[ocean]* & *[atmosphere]* \- affected by *[temperature]*, *[distance difference from heat sources]* & *[material density]* \- *[low temperature]* goes **down**; *[high temperature]* goes **up** **THEOREMS & STATEMENTS:** a. ***Mohorovicic Discontinuity*** - separates [crust & mantle] \- known as **Moho Boundary** \- by **Croatian seismologist** *[Andrija Mohorovicic]* **(1857-1936)** ***b. Low-Velocity Boundary*** - separates [lithosphere & asthenosphere] \- sudden variations of *[seismic waves]* ***c. 660km Discontinuity*** - separates [upper mantle & lower mantle] \- depth at **400km-650km** \- one of the [most complex] boundaries due to *[unequal & varying signal waves]* ***d. Gutenburg Discontinuity*** - separates the [core & mantle] \- depth at **2880km** \- by **German-American seismologist** *[Beno Gutenburg]* **(1889 - 1960)** ***e. Lehmann-Bullen Discontinuity*** - separates [outer core & inner core] \- depth at **5150km** \- by **Danish seismologist** *[Inge Lehmann]* **(1889-1993)** & **New Zealander geophysicist** *[Keith Bullen]* **(1906-1976)** III. **SEDIMENT TRANSPORTATION & DEPOSITION** ***[Transportation]*** - movement of *detrital & chemical* sediments by any *[erosion agent]* ***[Deposition]*** - settling down and adding of landmasses ***[Mass Movement]*** - gravitational force \- movement of sediments **downslope** \- *[gravitational force]* is greater than *[resistive forcea]* \- common on **inclined planes** ***[Depositional Environments]*** - areas where sediments are deposited = **Continental** - accumulation in land areas = **Transitional** - deposits in marine & freshwater connections = **Marine** - influenced by seawater beyond transitional **LANDMASSES/AREAS** 1. ***Meandering Stream*** - flow of water from side to side through river curves 2. ***Delta*** - fan-shaped landmass from settling sediment loads at the *[mouths of rivers]* 3. ***Alluvial Fan*** - cone/fan shaped deposit of sediments from *[low-lying flat land]* from build-up of sediments near *[fast-flowing water]* 4. ***Shorelines*** - reshaped lands near seas & oceans 5. ***Sandbars/Shoals*** - landmasses from sediment transports by **wave movements** 6. ***Loess*** - landmasses from compacted, fine, windblown sediments with winds gradually slowing down 7. ***Sand Dunes*** - landmasses from sediments on top of existing land barriers 8. ***Moraine*** - *[unsorted rock substances]* of varied sizes carried by *glaciers* near **ridges and glacier edges** IV. **DEFORMATION OF THE CRUST** ***[Deformation]*** - caused by planetary events in the environment & ***highly disastrous*** to surrounding areas \- affected by *[volcanism]*, *[earthquakes]*, *[tectonic plates]* & *[diastrophism]* 1. \- from the word *"[diastrophe]"* meaning distortion \- causes change to surface ***topography*** (*[diastrophic forces]*) **[Mountain Building]** - caused by *[convection currents]*, *[tectonic movement]* & *[mountain folding]* created by *[intense pressure]* of **plate movement** with another **[Fold Mountain]** - formation through *folding* or clashing of continental plates **[Convergent Zone]** - point where two plates rise up **[Continent Building]** - breakage & accretion of landmasses from **forces** \- **Paleozoic(541-299 MYA)**; *[Appalachians]* mountain system forms, now scattered *all throughout* Earth \- **Cratons**; regions with structurally modified *[continents]* that are structurally stable for a *period of time* 2. \- affected by *[magma]* \- causes the rise of [magma & volcanic gases] through **fissures & volcanic vents** \- involves numerous types of [magma & volcanic activity] ***[Magma]*** - molten rock substance beneath the planet \- formed by intense *[heat & pressure]* \- temperature at **700℃ - 1300℃** \- dissolved gases & suspended mineral grains or crystals \- made of **melt**; liquid substance made of **Silica(SiO~2~)** a. \- high in *[Fe & Mg]*, traces of *[K & Na]* b. \- balanced in *[Fe, Mg, Ca, Na & K]* c. \- high in *[K]*, traces of *[Fe, Mg & Ca]* ***[Viscosity]*** - ability for a liquid to flow \- affected by *[composition & temperature]* \- higher substances causes higher viscosity **Volcanism & Volcanic Activity:** **[Volcanism]** - pressure build-up of lava \- process of *volcanic eruptions* \- extrusion of *[lava]* & cooling of *[pyroclastic materials]* **[Volcanic Activity]** - release of *[molten rock & assorted gases]* from within the crust **OTHERS:** **Basaltic(Mafic):** *[Silica Content]*: ***50%*** *[Magma Temp]: **1200℃*** *[Viscosity]: **Fluid*** *[Lava Flow]:**Long, thin, broad sheets*** *[Gas Content]:* ***1%-2%*** *[Nature of Eruption]: **Quiescient*** **Andeistic(Intermediate):** *[Silica Content]*: ***60%*** *[Magma Temp]: **1000℃*** *[Viscosity]: **Intermediate*** *[Lava Flow]:**Intermediate*** *[Gas Content]:* ***3%-4%*** *[Nature of Eruption]: **Intermediate - Violent*** **Rhyolitic(Felsic):** *[Silica Content]*: ***70%*** *[Magma Temp]: **800℃*** *[Viscosity]: **Viscous*** *[Lava Flow]:**Short, Thick Flows*** *[Gas Content]:* ***4%-6%*** *[Nature of Eruption]: **Violent*** **VOLCANOES:** 1. *[Slope]:* ***Low(2º-10º)*** *[Size]: **Large*** *[Lava]: **Basaltic*** *[Nature of Eruption]: **Nonviolent/Quiscent*** *[Description]: **Shield-shaped*** *[Examples]: **Galapagos, Hawaiian, Samoa*** 2. *[Slope]:* ***Steep(33º)*** *[Size]: **Small*** *[Lava]: **Basaltic/Andeisitic*** *[Nature of Eruption]: **Violent*** *[Description]: **Composed of Tephra*** *[Examples]: **Sunset Crater*** 3. *[Slope]:* ***Intermediate(30º summit, 6º-10º base)*** *[Size]: **Intermediate*** *[Lava]: **Basaltic/Andeisitic/Rhyolytic*** *[Nature of Eruption]: **Most Violent*** *[Description]: **Made of Tephra Layers*** *[Examples]: **Pinatubo, Fuji*** 3. \- rocks affected by *[pressure], [temperature], & [chemical environments]* **Neocrystallization** - formation of new components & materials by *[metamorphism]* a. \- affected by *[high temperature]* \- temperature **high**; pressure **low** \- restricted to a **metamorphic aureole or zone** \- *[metamorphism]* increases in all directions of *intrusions* \- exposed to **hydrothermal fluid** from an area with *[intruded magma]* \- produces **non-foliated rocks** b. \- formed with *[deformation]* under differential *stress conditions* \- from *[compressional stresses]* or *[convergence]* \- folds rocks and thickens crust *[under deeper levels]* \- produces **foliated rocks** c. \- generates **heat** through friction causing *[crushing or pulverizing]* \- produces **shearing** or sliding d. \- alters [*Mg-Fe* rich hydrous materials] \- common in **basaltic rocks** lacking hydrous minerals \- produces **rich ore deposits** e. \- temperature reaches greater than ***300℃*** \- produces **new minerals** f. \- produces ***ultrahigh pressures*** to impacted rocks \- produces **minerals stable at high pressures** ***[Stresses]*** - directly applied force to a substance resulting to ***straining*** a. \- **folding/faulting** b. \- **block faulting**; some surface depress, some uplift c. ***[Strains]*** - physical changes of a surface \- affected by *[stress duration], [temperature condition], & [subjected rock type]* a. \- limited and can cause ***Flow*** or ***Fracture*** b. *-* deformation of *[ductile rocks]* that causes **folding** c. \- affected by *[low temperature & applied pressure]* \- creates **geologic faults** which can create [earthquakes]