1st Quiz (Earth Science) PDF

Origin & Structure of the Earth HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THEORIES THAT EXPLAIN THE ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE ANCIENT COSMOLOGIES MYTHOLOGICAL & RELIGIOUS THEORIES : Ancient civilizations such as the Greeks, Egyptians, and Mesopotamians had mythological explanations for the creation of the universe....

Origin & Structure of the Earth HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THEORIES THAT EXPLAIN THE ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE ANCIENT COSMOLOGIES MYTHOLOGICAL & RELIGIOUS THEORIES : Ancient civilizations such as the Greeks, Egyptians, and Mesopotamians had mythological explanations for the creation of the universe. These often involved gods and supernatural beings. GREEK PHILOSOPHERS : Philosophers like Aristotle and Plato proposed early naturalistic ideas. Aristotle, for instance, believed in an eternal, unchanging universe. MEDIEVAL TO RENAISSANCE ERA GEOCENTRIC MODEL (PTOLEMY) : The geocentric model, which placed Earth at the center of the universe, was dominant for centuries. HELIOCENTRIC MODEL (COPERNICUS) : Nicolaus Copernicus revolutionized our understanding with his heliocentric theory, placing the Sun at the center. 17TH TO 20TH CENTURY NEWTONIAN UNIVERSE : Isaac Newton's laws of motion and universal gravitation provided a framework for understanding the cosmos as a vast, mechanical system. STATIC UNIVERSE MODEL : Until the early 20th century, the prevailing view was that the universe was static and eternal. 20TH CENTURY AND BEYOND EXPANDING UNIVERSE (HUBBLE) : Edwin Hubble's observations in the 1920s showed that galaxies are moving away from each other, suggesting an expanding universe. BIG BANG THEORY : Developed in the mid-20th century, this theory posits that the universe began from an extremely hot and dense state and has been expanding ever since. Key contributors include Georges Lemaître, George Gamow, and others. From the elements’ spectral light from the lab and compared to galaxies, they are all shifted towards the RED end of the spectrum. This indicates that the wavelength of the galaxies grew from its original wavelength. Higher Z = farther galaxy!  strong nuclear force, and weak nuclear force—under one overarching framework, known as the "Theory of Everything." QUANTUM COSMOLOGY : focuses on the origins and development of the universe within the context of quantum mechanics. It aims to understand the early universe at the smallest scales and how quantum effects could have influenced the birth and evolution of the cosmos. One of the central questions in Quantum Cosmology is how the universe could have emerged from a quantum state, potentially explaining phenomena such as the Big Bang and cosmic inflation. STEADY STATE THEORY : Proposed by Fred Hoyle and others, this theory suggested that new matter is continuously created as the universe expands, maintaining a constant density. It fell out of favor as more evidence supported the Big Bang Theory. COSMIC INFLATION : Introduced by Alan Guth and others in the 1980s, this theory proposes a rapid expansion of the universe shortly after the Big Bang, explaining its large- scale structure and BUILDING BLOCKS OF THE UNIVERSE uniformity. Dark matter and dark energy are mysterious substances that affect and shape the cosmos, and scientists are still trying to figure them out. CONTEMPORARY DEVELOPMENTS The universe is made up of three components: normal or visible matter (5%), dark matter (27%), and dark energy (68%). MULTIVERSE THEORIES : Some modern theories suggest the existence of multiple universes or "multiverses" each with its own laws of physics by Hugh Everett III STRING THEORY AND QUANTUM COSMOLOGY : These advanced theoretical frameworks attempt to unify general relativity and quantum mechanics, providing deeper insights into the universe's origin and nature. ・Hawking was initially skeptical of the multiverse, even though some of his earlier work predicted it. ・He believed that the multiverse theory was untestable if NORMAL MATTER the scale of the universes was too large or infinite. Normal matter makes up everything we can directly observe. We can ・Hawking and Hertog's paper proposed a theory that the view it in visible light with our own eyes or through a telescope that universe is finite and smooth, rather than a fractal can detect light we cannot see, like ultraviolet or infrared. Most structure. normal matter is made up of atomic particles: protons, neutrons, and ・The paper also proposed a way to detect gravitational electrons. It can exist as a gas, solid, liquid, or plasma of charged waves from multiple big bangs using a space probe. particles. While normal matter is everywhere in our daily lives, it composes less than 5% of the total universe. STRING THEORY : Imagine the universe as a grand orchestra, and at its heart, every fundamental particle is a musical note played by tiny, vibrating strings. That's the essence of String Theory. Instead of thinking about particles as individual points, String Theory proposes that they are actually one-dimensional "strings" that vibrate at different frequencies. This theory attempts to unite the four fundamental forces of nature—gravity, electromagnetism, DARK MATTER THE DIFFERENT HYPOTHESES OF THE Like ordinary matter, dark matter takes up space and holds mass. But it doesn’t reflect, absorb, or radiate light – at least not enough ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM for us to detect yet. NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS While scientists have measured that dark matter makes up about Origin: Proposed by Emanuel Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant, and 27% of the cosmos, they’re not sure what it is. Theories include Pierre-Simon Laplace in the 18th century. several kinds of as-yet unidentified types of particles that rarely interact with normal matter. Concept: Suggests that the Solar System formed from a giant rotating cloud of gas and dust, called a solar nebula. As the nebula Astronomers didn’t even know dark matter existed until the 20th collapsed under gravity, it flattened into a disk, with the Sun century. In the 1930s, Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky coined the term forming at the center and the planets forming from the remaining while studying the Coma galaxy cluster, which contains more than material. 1,000 galaxies. The speed at which galaxies within a galaxy cluster move depends on the cluster’s total mass and size. Zwicky noticed Strengths: Supported by observations of protoplanetary disks that galaxies in the Coma cluster were moving faster than could be around young stars. Explains the general structure of the Solar explained by the amount of matter astronomers could see there. System, with the Sun at the center and planets orbiting in the same direction in a flat plane. It wasn’t until the 1970s that U.S. astronomer Vera Rubin confirmed the existence of dark matter by studying how individual galaxies Weaknesses: Does not explain the detailed composition and rotated. She and her colleagues found that individual galaxies may variations in the planetary orbits and compositions. contain invisible mass made of dark matter. Scientists today think dark matter exists in a vast, web-like structure that winds through the whole universe – a gravitational scaffold that attracts most of the cosmos’ normal matter. They’ve determined that dark matter isn’t composed of known particles of matter because the universe would look very different if it were. The search for what makes up dark matter continues. PLANETESIMAL HYPOTHESIS DARK ENERGY Origin: Developed by Viktor Safronov & others in the mid-20th Dark energy may compose roughly 68% of the universe, but century. scientists know even less about it than they do about dark matter. But something like dark energy must exist to explain the universe’s Concept: Proposes that small solid particles (planetesimals) in the accelerating expansion. early Solar System collided and stuck together to form larger bodies, eventually growing into planets. Since the late 1920s, astronomers have known that the universe is expanding. In the 1990s, observations of distant star explosions, Strengths: Explains the formation of terrestrial planets and the called supernovae, showed that the universe expanded more slowly presence of asteroids and comets. Supported by computer in the past than it does now. The reason for this remains unclear, simulations of planet formation. but the leading explanation is that the universe contains something that has a repulsive gravitational effect – it pushes the universe Weaknesses: Struggles to explain the formation of gas giants and apart instead of pulling it back together. This phenomenon is called the precise distribution of planets. dark energy. CAPTURE THEORY Origin: Proposed by James Jeans in the early 20th century. NICE MODEL Origin: Proposed in the early 21st century by a group of scientists Concept: Suggests that the Sun captured material from a passing named after the city of Nice, France. star, which then condensed to form the planets. Concept: Describes the evolution of the Solar System’s outer planets. Strengths: Accounts for some irregularities in planetary orbits. Suggests that the giant planets migrated from their original positions, causing a scattering of smaller bodies and shaping the Weaknesses: Lacks observational support and fails to explain the current configuration of the Solar System. overall structure and composition of the Solar System. Strengths: Explains the current positions of the giant planets, the Late Heavy Bombardment, and the structure of the Kuiper Belt. Weaknesses: Primarily focused on the outer Solar System and does not fully address the formation of the inner planets. Each of these hypotheses has contributed valuable insights to our understanding of the Solar System's formation, and ongoing research continues to refine and integrate these ideas. The current consensus favors the Nebular Hypothesis combined with elements from the Planetesimal and Protoplanet Hypotheses. PROTOPLANET HYPOTHESIS Origin: Developed in the mid-20th century by various scientists. Concept: Combines elements of the nebular hypothesis and planetesimal hypothesis. It proposes that larger bodies called protoplanets formed within the nebula and eventually became the planets. Strengths: Explains the gradual growth of planets and the presence of smaller bodies like asteroids and comets. Weaknesses: Still requires more detailed modeling and evidence to fully explain the formation of gas giants. Planetary Motions PLANETARY MOTIONS TWO PRIMARY MOTIONS ROTATION ・Turning, or spinning, of a body on its axis TWO MEASUREMENTS OF ROTATION ・Mean solar day – the time interval from one noon to the next, about 24 hours ・Sidereal day – the time it takes for Earth to make one complete rotation (360o) with respect to a star other than the Sun – 23 hours, 56 mins, 4 sec EFFECTS OF ROTATION Oxalis Triangularis (Love Plant) Phototropism is the ability of the plant to reorient the shoot growth towards a direction of light source. It is important to plants as it enhances the ability of plants to optimize their photosynthetic capacity. EARTH-SUN MOTIONS Under normal light conditions auxins are spread out in the plant. But when sunlight varies, auxin is broken down on SEASONS the sunnier side of the stem. ・Caused by Earth's changing orientation to the Sun ・Axis is inclined 23 ½ ° ・Axis is always pointed in the same direction SPECIAL DAYS ( NORTHERN HEMISPHERE ) ・Summer solstice ( June 21-22 ) Sun's vertical rays are located at the Tropic of Cancer ( 23 ½ ° N latitude ) ​ ・Winter solstice ( December 21-22 ) Sun's vertical rays are located at the Tropic of REVOLUTION Capricorn ( 23 ½ ° S latitude ) ・The motion of a body, such as a planet or moon, along a path around some point in space. ・Autumnal equinox ( September 22-23 ) ​ ・Earth's orbit is elliptical Sun's vertical rays are located at the ・Earth is closest to the Sun ( perihelion ) in January Equator ( 0 ° latitude ) ・Earth is farthest from the Sun ( aphelion ) in July ・The plane of the ecliptic is an imaginary plane that ​ ・Spring equinox ( March 21-22 ) connects Earth's orbit with the celestial sphere Sun's vertical rays are located at the Equator ( 0 ° latitude ) OTHER EARTHS MOTIONS PRECESSION ・Very slow Earth movement ・Direction in which Earth's axis points continually changes ・Movement with the solar system in the direction of the star Vega ・Revolution with the Sun around the galaxy ・Movement with the galaxy within the universe The cycle of apsidal precession spans about 112,000 years. Apsidal precession changes the orientation of Earth's orbit relative to the ecliptic plane. The combined effects of axial and apsidal precession result in an overall precession cycle spanning about 23,000 years on average.  BRUMATION is a state of inactivity that cold-blooded creatures enter during winter. Think of this as hibernation for reptiles and amphibians. During extended cold periods, their bodies produce high levels of sugar and slow or shutdown their internal processes. Some animals can even freeze! Animals have different strategies for surviving the winter. The most common strategies are hibernation, brumation, diapause, torpor, migration and adaptation. COMMON STRATEGIES OF ANIMALS FOR SURVIVING IN WINTER HIBERNATION occurs when an animal enters a deep sleep for the entire winter. Animals that hibernate eat extra food during the fall to store up fat before winter begins. When it’s time to hibernate, the You might think that an aquatic frog would hide in the mud at the animal drops its body temperature by 20 °C or more and slows its bottom of a pond during winter, but the green frog actually nestles heart rate and breathing in order to use less energy. among rocks in oxygen-rich cold water. This way, it can continue to breathe through its skin throughout the winter. Hanging out ( literally ) in frost-free, humid caves or tunnels called This type of land frog hides under piles of leaves to stay warm hibernacula with its friends and family, the little brown bat slows its during the winter. Due to a high concentration of sugar in its blood, metabolism and breathing during hibernation. The creature’s heart it doesn’t turn into solid ice, but it does freeze. The frog’s breathing, rate drops from 200 beats per minute to 20 beats per minute as it blood flow and heartbeat all stop. In spring, the animal thaws out lives off its fat reserves over the winter. It wakes up occasionally to and returns to normal! take a sip of water and urinate before heading back to sleep. DIAPAUSE occurs when insects pause their development to MIGRATION is the act of moving from one place to another. Some prepare for winter. Some insects stop all body processes and creatures migrate to a warmer location when the weather gets too sometimes freeze until the weather warms up in the spring, at which cold. They may travel alone or in large groups to areas where food is point they go back to their regular development. plentiful. Unlike other insects that hibernate, the monarch butterfly flies south to Mexico and California in the winter. Here, thousands of these beautiful butterflies gather to hang onto tree branches and live off their fat. In early spring, they start to feed, mate and journey north again. TORPOR is a state that some animals enter during the winter. Similar to hibernation, the animal lowers its body temperature and slows its breathing and heart rate. However, animals that use torpor during the winter may wake up occasionally or regularly to hunt, eat and defecate. Some animals are also able to go in and out of torpor regularly, like when it gets very cold at night. ADAPTATION to winter weather can take many different forms. Some animals adapt to their colder environment by growing more feathers or thicker fur, and some change colour to make it easier to hide in the snow. Many creatures gather extra food in the fall and In fall, the black bear finds a cozy den where it can curl up for a long store it away to nibble on later. They may also find a nice spot to nap. Its body temperature only drops slightly, but the bear’s heart shelter from the cold weather where they can huddle close together rate goes way down as it snoozes on and off through the winter, to stay warm. living on stored body fat. Unlike true hibernators, black bears can wake up and wander around during the winter. In the fall, the snowshoe hare transforms its thin brown fur coat To conserve energy when food is not available, the raccoon finds a into a thick winter white coat, which allows it to stay active and den for the winter and curls up to sleep. It can make a den in a gather food in the winter. This crafty critter blends into its snowy hollow tree, vacant burrow or even a building. Unlike other animals surroundings and travels easily through deep snow due to its wide that enter torpor, the raccoon’s body temperature doesn’t drop. feet. When it’s time to rest, the snowshoe hare snoozes in bushes When the weather gets warmer, the raccoon will get up and wander and hollow logs. around.  Photoperiodism is the response to changes in daylength that The blooming process is initiated by just one protein! As the days enables plants to adapt to seasonal changes in their environment. start getting longer, and the number of daylight hours begins to The best studied example of photoperiodism in plants is flowering, increase, a plant protein called “CONSTANS” (“CO”) is activated within but other responses to daylength include bud dormancy and bulb or the plant. Next, CO triggers another protein known as “Flowering tuber initiation. Locus T”, or simply “FT.” Plants produce more FT with warmer temperatures. FT causes the plant to start producing a gene called “APETALA1,” which in turn produces the APETALA1 protein. This protein then activates more than 1,000 other genes involved in the flowering process. For example, it signals genes that are responsible for leaf growth to stop producing leaves, and instead start producing flowers. Philippine Astronomy PHILIPPINE ASTRONOMY In School Year (SY) 2002-2003, the University of the Philippines through its National Institute of Physics offered an astronomy subject entitled "Physics and Astronomy for Pedestrians" Work in astronomy in the Philippines started in 1897. It was one of the functions of the "Observatorio de Meteorologico de Manila" In 2005-2006, For the first time, the Rizal Technological University (OMM), which performed not only meteorological and astronomical (RTU) offered a graduate program leading to a degree of Master of services but also seismological and terrestrial magnetism services. Science in Astronomy. Its astronomical activities were mostly limited to timekeeping and observation of solar and stellar phenomena. The OMM began as a private institution in 1865 and became a government agency as the Weather Bureau in 1901 with its observatory in Manila as its central office. During the Second World War, the astronomical observatory was destroyed and a new observatory was constructed within the campus of the University of the Philippines in Quezon City in 1954. It remained there up to the present time, now under the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA), as the only government observatory. From 1954, the observatory has not seen any major change until 1998. The construction of a planetarium in the PAGASA Science Garden in Quezon City in September 1977 is the only addition to the facilities of the agency. Astronomy is taught as a part of the general science subject in elementary schools where it is normally given a three-hour per week period in Grades V and VI classes in the Philippines. It is an elective subject, which is taken in one semester (four months) in the first year high school level. DESIGNATION CLASS LAUNCH LAUNCH MISSION DESCRIPTION ( PURPOSE ) DATE SITE STATUS Agila - 1 Satellite March 20, Cape Deorbited in It was launched under the name Palapa B2-P. This was the first ( Mabuhay ) ( Communication ) 1987 Canaveral 1998 Filipino-owned satellite by Mabuhay Satellite Corporation after it LC-17 in was purchased from PT Pasifik Satelit Nusantara, an Indonesian Florida Company. Purchased by Mabuhay Philippine Satellite Corporation ( MPSC ) from an Indonesian-based private satellite company while it was already in orbit, Agila-1 was Philippine's first satellite in orbit. It was used primarily in telecommunication and broadcasting. Agila - 2 Satellite August 19, Xichang Sold to Asia The first Filipino-owned satellite to be launched into space, Agila-2 ( Communication ) 1997 Space Center Broadcast was launched in 1997 from the Xichang Satellite Launch Center in in China Satellite China. It is named after the Philippine eagle and provides coverage (renamed as in the Asia-Pacific region. ABS-3) It was designed, built, and launched by Space Systems/Loral, a California-based satellite-building company. In 2009, it was purchased by Asia Broadcast Satellite. The transponders on board the satellite are primarily used for telecommunications and television services. Diwata - 1 MicroSatellite April 27, Cape De- First microsatellite of the Philippines to deploy into orbit from the ( PHL-Microsat-1 ) 2016 Canaveral commissioned International Space Station Air Force on April 06, Station 2020 Named after a Philippine mythical creature, it is the first satellite Space designed and built by Filipinos. It carried with it instruments to Launch allow it to monitor weather and the extent of damage caused by Complex 41 natural disasters. Diwata-1 greatly exceeded its 18-month lifespan in Florida and was able to cover approximately 38% of the Philippine's land and took over 17,000 pictures of the Earth. Maya-1 Cubesat June 29, Cape Completed on First nanosatellite of the Philippines. 2018 Canaveral Nov. 23, 2020 LC-17 in Maya-1 is the first cube satellite (CubeSat) developed under the Florida BIRDS-2 (Birds Satellite Project), a satellite project involving participants from the Philippines, Malaysia, Bhutan, and Japan. Only about the size of a shoe box, it allows communication with amateur radio operators. It can also be used to communicate with far flung locations during natural disasters. Diwata-2 Microsatellite October Tanegashima Active Diwata-2 is a replacement for Diwata-1. It is also under the 29, 2018 Space Center PHL-Microsat Program (now Stamina4Space) like Diwata-1. in Japan Moreover, much like Diwata-1, it also carries with it instruments for monitoring of vegetation, natural and cultural heritage sights, and the effects of natural disasters. It has deployable solar panels for greater power output and has higher image resolution. Maya-2 Cubesat February Mid-Atlantic Deorbited on Maya-2 is a replacement for Maya-1. Expected to launch in 2021, it 20, 2021 Regional July 5, 2022 is the Philippine's first inter-university satellite project. It is Spaceport in currently under development in the Kyushu Institute of Technology Virginia in Japan. It is being built around Maya-1's design using more advanced satellite technology. Maya-3 and Cubesat August John F. Deorbited on Deployed simultaneously with Maya-4 as the country's first Maya-4 29, 2021 Kennedy July 25 and university-built satellites. Space Center 27, 2022 in Florida Expected to launch in 2021, it is the first Philippine university-built CubeSats under the Stamina4Space Program. The two satellites have almost identical on board equipment, but Maya-4 has an infrared camera, while Maya-3 doesn't. Maya-5 and Cubesat June 5, John F. Deorbited on Deployed simultaneously with Maya-6 as the country's second Maya-6 2023 Kennedy December 8 university-built satellite. Space Center and in December 12, Florida 2023, respectively. DESIGNATION CLASS LAUNCH LAUNCH MISSION DESCRIPTION ( PURPOSE ) DATE SITE STATUS Multispectral Unit Earth Observation 2025-2026 MULA would be the first of a "next-generation satellites" under the for Land (planned) Philippine space program, with the team behind the satellite Assessment building on the knowledge gained in developing the Diwata and Maya nanosatellites. MicroGEO First Internet USA To be Satellite ‘Agila’ will be operational on 14 February 2025. Satellites Satellites launched on (Agila) December 2024 Interested to pursue Astronomy and Astronomy-Related Degrees? New Era University ( NEU ) The first private Higher Education Institution (HEI) in the Philippines to offer a BS Astronomy program. NEU has some of the best equipment in the country, including a solar telescope and a radio astronomy observatory. Rizal Technological University ( RTU ) RTU's curriculum includes Astrophysics, Meteorological Sciences, and Space Science Technology. In 2024, RTU's Department of Earth and Space Sciences (RTU-DESS) has a Center for Astronomy Research and Development (CARD). CARD has research laboratories for topics like space technology, astronomy for the public, and space weather.  (7) BIODIVERSITY Ecosystems: Earth hosts diverse ecosystems that support a wide range of life forms, promoting resilience and adaptation. Interconnectedness: Species interactions, such as pollination and predation, contribute to the stability and sustainability of life. (8) GRAVITY Stable Environment: Earth's gravity maintains an atmosphere, allows for liquid water, and supports terrestrial life. (9) SUNLIGHT Energy Source: Sunlight provides the energy needed for photosynthesis, which forms the base of most food chains. Seasonal Variation: Variations in sunlight due to Earth's axial tilt CHARACTERISTICS OF EARTH THAT ARE create seasons, promoting biodiversity and ecological balance. NECESSARY TO SUPPORT LIFE (10) MOON’S INFLUENCE Tides: The gravitational pull of the Moon generates tides, which (1) LIQUID WATER influence coastal ecosystems and marine life. Availability: Earth's surface has abundant liquid water, essential for all known life forms. Solvent Properties: Water dissolves nutrients and facilitates THE EARTH’S 4 SUBSYSTEMS, ACROSS chemical reactions necessary for life. WHOSE BOUNDARIES MATTER & ENERGY (2) ATMOSPHERE (1) ATMOSPHERE Composition: Earth's atmosphere contains oxygen for respiration, Description: The layer of gases surrounding Earth. It includes the nitrogen for nitrogen-fixing bacteria, and carbon dioxide for troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. photosynthesis. Role: Regulates temperature, protects from harmful solar radiation, Protection: The atmosphere shields the planet from harmful solar and supports life through the provision of oxygen and the carbon radiation and helps regulate temperature. cycle. (3) TEMPERATURE RANGE Matter and Energy Flow: Water vapor evaporates from the Habitable Zone: Earth lies within the "Goldilocks Zone" around the hydrosphere and condenses to form clouds and precipitation. Energy Sun, where temperatures allow liquid water to exist. from the Sun heats the Earth's surface, causing air to circulate and weather patterns to form. Climate Stability: Earth's temperature range supports diverse ecosystems and allows biochemical processes to occur. (4) MAGNETIC FIELD Protection: Earth's magnetic field deflects harmful solar and cosmic radiation, protecting the atmosphere and living organisms. (5) NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY Biogeochemical Cycles: Earth's systems (such as the carbon, nitrogen, and water cycles) recycle essential nutrients that support life. Soil Fertility: Rich, nutrient-filled soils support plant life and agricultural systems. (6) GEOLOGICAL ACTIVITY Plate Tectonics: Earth's dynamic crust recycles nutrients, regulates carbon dioxide levels, and forms diverse habitats. Volcanism: Volcanic activity releases essential gases and minerals into the environment. (2) HYDROSPHERE (4) BIOSPHERE Description: All water on Earth, including oceans, rivers, lakes, Description: All living organisms on Earth, including plants, animals, glaciers, and groundwater. and microorganisms. Role: Supports aquatic life, regulates climate through heat Role: Drives biogeochemical cycles, such as the carbon and nitrogen distribution, and is essential for all living organisms. cycles, and influences the composition of the atmosphere and hydrosphere. Matter and Energy Flow: ・Water cycles between the atmosphere (evaporation, Matter and Energy Flow: condensation), lithosphere (infiltration), and biosphere (uptake ・Plants take in carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and water by plants). from the hydrosphere for photosynthesis, releasing oxygen. ・Solar energy drives the water cycle, causing evaporation and ・Organic matter decomposes, returning nutrients to the soil influencing ocean currents. (lithosphere) and contributing to biogeochemical cycles. (5) INTERCONNECTEDNESS Energy Transfer: The Sun provides energy that drives processes in all four spheres, such as photosynthesis in the biosphere and weather patterns in the atmosphere. Matter Exchange: Water cycles through the hydrosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere, carrying nutrients and supporting life. (3) LITHOSPHERE Description: The rigid outer layer of Earth, comprising the crust and upper mantle. It includes landforms, rocks, and soil. Role: Provides nutrients through soil, supports plant life, and shapes the landscape. Matter and Energy Flow: ・Weathering and erosion transfer minerals to the hydrosphere. ・Tectonic activity recycles materials and releases geothermal energy.