1BA3 Notes PDF

lOMoARcPSD|46266083 1BA3 Notes Organizational Behaviour (McMaster University) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by France Is (ilmafaisal...

lOMoARcPSD|46266083 1BA3 Notes Organizational Behaviour (McMaster University) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 Writing in pink = “starred” stuff said by Teal Week 1 (Chapter 1) Course Inf Micro OB: study/practice/consult individual person’s psyche Meso OB: study/practice/consult people interacting in teams. Synergy is 2 + 2 = 5 meaning the addition of parts is greater than the parts themselves/on their own Macro OB: study/practice/consult interactions with other organizations ex. Suppliers, competitors, customers etc. Evolution of organization behaviour 1900s 1. Classical/traditional views ○ Each department tends to own business, central decision making, silo management ○ Big boss who doesn’t care about workers, don’t give any control to workers Bureaucracy ○ Max Weber: strict chain of command, central power, promotion based on competence. “What’s the most highly efficient form of administry”. Everything should be planned, coordinated, and controlled. Didn’t care what workers thought. Centralized power at top of organization. Scientific Management ○ Taylorism: use careful research to determine the optimal way of work. ○ Frederick Taylor: found efficiency in factories. Came up with “piece rate pay system” ex. commission ○ Laborers should work according to a process analyzed and designed by management for optimum efficiency, “the one best way,” allowing them to do as much as humanly possible within a specific time period ○ Molders walked out in protest at Army Arsenal factory after being monitored: first worker rebellion against Taylorism ○ Taylorism went from scientific approach to mechanical and demeaning (dehumanizing effect) ○ Before WW2: group of elite managers scientifically managing workers like machines ○ Bruce Henderson created Corporate Strategy which was a “Greater Taylorism” 2. Human relations movement ○ Bosses care about workers ○ Elton Mayo created worker illumination study (seeing if lighting changed productivity) turned into the Hawthorne study ○ Hawthorne Studies on psych and social processes affecting productivity When you’re being watched, you work harder People felt special, part of something, less alienated, more involved, felt cared about Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 ○ Human relations school of thought (created by Elton Mayo) was about managers taking an interest in workers and treating them well ○ Advocate management styles that are more oriented towards employees needs ○ Maslow's hierarchy of needs: 1. Physiological needs (ex. food, water) 2. Safety/Security (ex. house) 3. Affiliation (ex. love) 4. Self Esteem (ex. Self respect, competence) 5. Self actualization (ex. Be the best you can be) ○ Doug McGregor’s Theory Y (vs Theory X) ○ 1940-1980: peak of public support and self confidence, respected workers more, no boss and worker mindset but instead manager and employee (Peter Drucker) ○ Theory X: people are lazy and will do as little as possible if they aren't closely policed. Managers think they are responsible for organization, controlling and directing. ○ Theory Y: people want to find meaning in their work and will contribute in positive ways if the work is well designed and given the chance. Alternative view on workers. (Doug McGregor) Optimistic about human nature. ○ Mary Follett “power with, not power over workers” ○ Human relations was critical of bureaucracy 3. Human Resources Perspective ○ Workers get more responsibilities ○ Referred to as beyond human relations ○ Participative management (workplace democracy, foster autonomy, employees contributing to productivity) ○ Democracy: joined problem solving ○ Fostering autonomy: pushing decision making onto employees ○ (The textbook doesn't have many notes on this stage, but we should know it) 4. Contingency/Systems Approach ○ Management style depends on the situation ○ Bosses are flexible and adaptive, modern way has no best way to manage ○ Modern: managers doing what needs to be done for the market, lack of moral ambitions ○ Most important contingency variable: national culture ○ Overall increase in productivity and ethics for workers ○ Prescriptive response vs non prescriptive response managerial style Prescriptive: carefully calculated, controlled, organized, planned, perfectionists Non prescriptive: not afraid to go outside the box, being okay knowing there’s gonna be conflicts and uncertainty, this is the type of manager in the modern contingency approach Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 Manager Roles - Mintzberg Informational Role ○ Monitor - following performance levels ○ Disseminator - sending info ex. Sending emails to employees ○ Spokesperson - sending info outside organization ex. Report to investors ○ Various ways a manager receives and transmits information Interpersonal Role ○ Figurehead - symbol of organization ○ Leader - select, mentor, reward employees ○ Liaison - maintain contacts inside and outside organization ○ Managers establish and maintain interpersonal relationships, relationship building ○ “A manager does things right, a leader does the right thing” Decisional Role ○ Entrepreneur - turning problems into opportunities ○ Disturbance handler - deal with employee conflicts ○ Resource allocator - how to deploy time, money etc. ○ Negotiator - negotiate with other organizations or individuals ○ Managers dealing with decision making Manager Roles - Luthans Routine communication: exchanging info Traditional management: are you capable of traditional ways ex.controlling, coordinating, decision making Networking: socializing, emotional intelligence (moves you up the ranks of an organization the fastest) Human resources management: how good are you at hiring, firing, performance management, training (it obtains employee commitment and satisfaction if done well) Manager Roles - Kotter Agenda setting: goal setting, time management Agenda implementation: doing your action plans Networking: influence tactics, ability to connect Simon and Isenberg Power of intuition: your sixth sense Do you have the gut instinct Situational sensing: adaptive to what method you should be (classical, HR etc.) Rapid mental processing/ analysis: how quick to do mental tasks, assessments Synthesizing: manage many moving parts, be able to manage chaos Analyses: pulling all the data together into “art” 4 Modern Trends Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 Diversity management (local & global) ○ Ability to manage people of different perspectives, goals, ex. Working with a music, engineer, and business student Employee health and wellbeing ○ There’s an increase in job insecurity, mental health illnesses, burnouts, work life imbalance issues, increase demands on self Talent management & employee engagement ○ Hiring right people, increasing people’s commitment Focus on corporate social responsibility ○ organization’s responsibility for the impact of its decisions and actions on its stakeholders. Can be internal or external Textbook 1.1 Organizations Organizations: Social inventions for accomplishing common goals through group effort. They’re social inventions because they can’t exist without members. All organizations have: who (people), what (goals, improving), how (do it alone, teams etc) Most important goal: survival Past to present: focus is more on employability (more skills) than job security (less permanent) in the workforce Management is a set of practices that can be studied and improved May 1886 Henry Towne wrote “The Engineer as an Economist” The Principles of Scientific Management (1911) set off a century-long quest to balance “the things of production” and “the humanity of production” The field of organizational behaviour is ○ About understanding people and managing them to work effectively ○ Concerned with how organizations can survive and adapt to change ○ Concerned with how to get people to practice effective teamwork Innovation and flexibility are strategic priorities The attitudes and behaviours of individuals and groups in organizations Attempt to understand, predict, explain and manage how people behave at work Ex. understand the problem, predict and study whats wrong, explain to others, manage/actions to solve the problem Thermostat analogy: 1. What's the current temperature/state (where are you) 2. Desired temperature/state (your goal of where you want to be) 3. What’s the magnitude of the gap and how to close it (the action to get from where we are to where we want to be) 4. Measure the change and start again Textbook 1.2 Organizational Behaviour Closely related discipline is human resources management: programs, practices, and systems to acquire, develop, motivate, and retain employees in organizations Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 OB helps us understand why employees become committed to an organization and what motivates them to work hard Today, the main factor that differentiates organizations is their workforce and human capital Human capital: knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSA) embodied in an organization’s employees Social capital: social resources that individuals obtain from participation in a social structure ex. Networking The best companies to work for are also the most successful Management: art of getting things accomplished in organizations through others. Goals of OB ○ Predicting the behaviour of others ex. # of people quitting their jobs this year ○ Explain events in organizations ex. why are people quitting their jobs ○ Manage a situation ex. actions to fix the reason why people quit Evidence based management: translating principles based on the best scientific evidence into organizational practices Meaningful work: Satisfying and fulfilling work that serves for the greater good. It leads to higher motivation, work engagement, creativity and performance in workers. It can come from higher roles, interactions, the organization 4 sources of meaningful work: job design, human resource practices, leadership style, culture & values Textbook 1.3 Early Management Prescription Classical view vs human relations view Red tape mentality: employees lose sight of the organization’s goals bc they focus only on their current task Textbook 1.4 Managers Geert Hofstede observations of managers in different countries: ○ Cultural heroes in North America ○ Worships engineers, not much managers in Germany ○ Managers should be modest and strive for consensus in Netherlands The technical requirements for accomplishing goals are the same worldwide, it’s just the behavioural requirements that differ Textbook 1.5 Org Behaviour & Management More intergenerational contact in the workforce as seniors are working longer (ex. In fast food with teens) Absenteeism is increasing (calling absent for no good reason) mostly due to stress and work life conflict Mental health will soon be #2 cause of disabilities Workplace spirituality: workplaces that provide employees with meaning and a purpose that aligns with their values, and a sense of connection with others Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 Positive organizational behaviour: study and application of positively oriented human resource strengths and psychological capacities (hope, resilience) that can be measured, developed and effectively managed for performance improvement in today’s workplace Talent management: organization’s processes for attracting, developing, retaining, and deploying people with the required skills to meet current and future business needs Retaining employees is the top priority for Canadian CEOs 3 ways to have collective organizational engagement: ○ Motivating work design, HR management practices, and CEO transformational leadership behaviours True/False Answers: 1. Not always happy workers are productive 2. False. Escalation of commitment is a decision making approach. Ex. When we put so much time and effort into something, then later find out it’s wrong, we might not want to stop 3. False. You want to resolve conflict, not just prevent 4. False. Form follows function. 5. False. Companies are most effective when they have a strong POSITIVE corporate culture. Ex. Hitler had a strong corporate culture, but it was negative. 6. False. Positive vs negative vs neutral stress. Positive stress is exciting, stimulating, motivating. Negative stress is demotivating, overwhelmed. Neutral stress is neither positive nor negative. Situation + Thinking = Response. Given a situation, how i think determines how i respond/behave. Ex. if you think someone is smart, you’ll behave towards them well, compared to if you think someone is dumb 7. False. First start with symptoms and work backwards to make sure you have the right problem. Ex. Someone being late for work all the time is a symptom of a problem. 8. True. Females tend to participate and get involved more. 9. No answer. 10. True in the past. False in the present. Know the difference between type A vs B. 11. False. Equity theory: A motivation theory. There is a difference between over reward and under reward in equity. 12. False. Intrinsic motivation (actually care about it, challenging, exciting, i'm growing!) and extrinsic motivation (I don’t care, just pay me more, I want the big office). 13. False. People overestimate their coworkers salary 14. False. People underestimate their absent days 15. False. Pay is one way to motivate employees. 16. True. 17. False. You aren’t just introverted or extroverted. You are some of both. 18. True 19. True. Reinforcement theory. Ex. Pavlov dog experiment 20. False. Too cohesive tends to “group think” which is not good Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 Extra Tip from Prof Teal In a job interview, if they ask what skill makes you capable for the job, the answer is situational sensing. It’s when you’re good at sensing a situation and the best method to handle it. Ex. If an employee is working hard, you could choose a friendly managerial style like human resources perspective. If an employee is not working hard, you could choose a traditional managerial approach. Week 2 (How my ability, personality, values, and attitudes impact me and you. Ch 2,4,5) Ability Ability: what a person is capable of (a competency, skill, you can change and grow it, something you have and hold) There are 3 commonly studied abilities. 1. Cognitive ability (IQ): capacity/efficiency to learn and process cognitive information such as reading, comprehension, math and spatial patterns ex. MCAT, LSAT, GMAT 2. Emotional intelligence (EQ): ability to accurately identify emotions (in self and others) and to understand and manage those emotions separately. Important with jobs with social interaction. Something about me (self awareness and management) and the other person (aware of them and managing them). Daniel Goleman created the components of emotional intelligence. The higher you go up in a job, the more it matters. It’s positively correlated with: ○ Perceptions of leadership (respect from others) ○ Coping with stress ○ Job performance Google said the perfect team has emotional intelligence and good communication 3. Cultural intelligence (CQ): represents a person’s capability to function effectively in situations characterized by cultural diversity. Ability to show sensitivity to diverse people. Any international relations job, public relations, negotiations across regions, supply chain relationships need CQ. There’s 4 sub skills on measuring CQ: ○ 1. CQ Strategy - how a person interprets and understands intercultural experiences. How you’re choosing to go and research/plan. ○ 2. CQ Knowledge - person’s understanding of how cultures are similar and different. Gaining knowledge. ○ 3. CQ Motivation - person’s interest in experiencing other cultures and interacting with people from different cultures (aka personal drive) ○ 4. CQ Behaviour - person’s capability to modify their own verbal and nonverbal behaviour so it is appropriate for different cultures. Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 Personality Personality: the relatively (not 100%) stable set of psychological characteristics that influence the way an individual interacts (thinks, acts, behaves) with their environment ○ Personal style of dealing with the world ○ Your genetic predisposition/ hardwiring, what makes you unique ○ Includes values and motives ○ Nature (dispositional) vs Nurture (situational) or both (interactionist) ○ Dispositional approach: individuals are predisposed to behave in certain ways. Note- research failed to show personality as a predictor of job performance ○ Situational approach: characteristics of the organizational setting (ex. rewards and punishment) influence people’s feelings, attitudes, and behaviour. ○ Interactionist approach: to predict and understand organizational behaviour, one must know something about an individual’s personality and the setting in which they work (mix of disposition and situational) ○ Personality affects how you react in “weak” situations where it’s not clear what you have to do. (In strong situations, it's clear what needs to be done) 5 factor model of personality (Big 5) (they’re all relatively independent, all apply worldwide, there is strong proof that it has genetic bases) ○ Extraversion vs introversion - you are more or less outgoing or shy ○ Emotional stability - degree of control over your emotions ○ Agreeableness - degree of approachability and cooperativeness (positive correlation with commitment to your organization) ○ Conscientiousness - degree of responsibleness and achievement oriented. The predictive capability performance in all jobs (general characteristics like dependable, self discipline, hard working, integrity etc). The more you have, the more employable you are. ○ Openness to experience - degree you’re flexible to new ideas and experiences (humble) Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 7 other important personality characteristics ○ Locus of control - location of control lies in internal (planned person, has initiative) or external (go with the flow, believe in fate and luck) forces ○ Self monitoring - degree which people observe and regulate how they appear and behave in social settings. People who wear their heart on their sleeve are low self monitors. People who act according to social standards and tune into social cues are high self monitors. Managers tend to be high self monitors. ○ Self esteem - degree in self confidence ○ Self efficacy - person’s belief in yourself with respect to performing a particular task. It develops over your lifetime depending on how many successes and failures you have. ex. I am good at math ○ Positive and negative affectivity - positive or negative point of view. Positive affectivity is the strongest predictor of employee engagement. ○ Proactive personality - feels unconstrained by situational forces, wants to make positive changes, don’t wait for bad things to happen, love making improvements ○ Core self evaluations - multidimensional trait, worth/worthiness, accumulation of self esteem, self efficacy, locus of control, emotional stability. Individuals with a positive self-regard are more likely to perceive and pay attention to the positive aspects of their environments. ex. People believe they are worthy of success. Opposite is people don’t trust that they will succeed Personality preferences - Carl Jung (don’t need to study this) ○ People’s behaviour is rarely random but reflects a stable pattern of personal preferences ○ Large % of people in certain occupations tend to share similar preferences Personality preferences - Myers Briggs Dimensions (don’t need to study this) ○ Extraversion or Introversion ○ Sensing or intuition ○ Thinking or feeling ○ Judgement or perception Core values - Individual’s value system ○ Broad tendency to prefer certain states of situations over others ○ Enduring long lasting beliefs about what’s most important in the world ○ Non-negotiable deeply held beliefs (deal breakers) ○ There are a number of values that people differ on degree to which they possess ○ Values awareness helps determine fit with other jobs and organizations Trait activation theory: personality characteristics influence people’s behaviour when the situation calls for a particular personality characteristic Adaptive performance: responding to environmental changes by modifying one’s behaviour. Personality is an important predictor of someone’s adaptive performance Behavioural plasticity theory: people with low self esteem are more susceptible to external and social influences than those with high self esteem People with high core self evaluation and agreeableness tend to be popular people Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 Learning occurs when practice or experience leads to relatively permanent change in behaviour potential Must provide an alternative for a punished response Social cognitive theory: Associated with modelling. People have the capacity to control their own thoughts, feelings, and actions through: ○ Observational learning - watching and imitating the behaviour of others ○ Self efficacy beliefs - self confidence in succeeding ○ Self regulation - manage our own behaviour Organizational learnings practices: organizational behaviour modification, employee recognition programs, training and development programs Operant Learning Diagram: Values Differences in values occur in different generations ex. Gen X, Millennials, Gen Y, Gen Z In a group, every person plays a functional role (technical skills) and psychological role (person they are). Psychological roles include: ○ Results oriented, relationship focused, process/rule followers, innovative, and pragmatic Cultural tightness vs looseness: how clear the rules for behaviour and norms are. Canada is loose, while Korea is tight ex. How sexes should interact with each other Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 Differences in values across cultures set constraints on the export and import of organizational behaviour theories and management practices. They also have implications for satisfying global customers and developing globally aware employees Organization cultural differences: ○ Work centrality - how is work valued? Do the people live to work or work to live? ○ Hofstede: 1.Power distance: extent to which unequal distribution of power is accepted. Small or large power distance. Superiors are accessible and power distance is downplayed from boss to employee. There are subcultures in large firms which have different power distances. 2.Uncertainty avoidance: extent which people are uncomfortable with uncertain/ambiguous situations. Strong UA doesn’t like risk, they have a lot of rules and regulations. Weak UA encourages risk taking. (HR management) 3.Masculinity/femininity: Masculinity has great differentiation between gender roles. Support for dominance of men. Femininity accepts fluid gender roles. 4.Individualism/collectivism: Individualism- Independence and initiative is encouraged. Collectivism: synergy and working together. The USA is an example of individualism because they have separate states. 5.Long term/short term orientation: Long term - people are oriented towards future rewards, cautious of long term impacts, care about corporate social responsibility and next generation. Short term - oriented about present gain and immediate gratification Attitudes Attitude: A fairly stable evaluative tendency to respond consistently to some specific object, situation, person or category of people. What we think and what we feel. Belief + value → attitude → behaviour Situation + Thinking = Response Example: Believe job interferes with my family. I value my family the most... I dislike my job and I end up coming to work late. Discrepancy theory: satisfaction is a function of the discrepancy between the job outcomes people want and the outcomes that they perceive they obtain Determinants of job satisfaction (job satisfaction is collection of attitudes that workers have about their job. They can be overall measure or just one aspect aka facet) ○ 1. Discrepancy: not getting what you want ○ 2. Fairness: distributive fairness (ex. Someone paid more. Equity theory: my outcomes/my inputs = others outcomes/others inputs), procedural fairness (process used to determine work outcome is unreasonable. Ex hiring and firing), interactional fairness (receiving respectful and informative communication they feel connection and respect with boss) ○ 3. Disposition: your personality affects your satisfaction with a job Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 ○ 4. Mood/emotion: Allowing your mood at home to come to work ○ 5. Work factors:challenge, compensation, career opportunities, other people, anything outside you that affects your job satisfaction (ex. Long car ride to work) Consequences of job satisfaction ○ 1. Absenteeism: physiological/physical illness (increase sick days), somatic illness (psychological leads to back aches and migraines that can’t be tested by doctors), lateness (cost of absenteeism for Canada is $15 billion) ○ 2. Turnover: leaving or thinking of leaving. ○ 3. Performance: problem with productivity due to lack of performance. Or people who watch the clock, do the bare minimum, or steal. People who are scared of job security may overperform. ○ 4. Organizational citizenship behaviour: people go above and beyond, help other employees, they love their job. People who are unsatisfied with their job will not show this. ○ 5. Customer satisfaction and profit: Customer feedback on employees and the company’s profit are concrete external measures of internal job satisfaction. Honeymoon effect: You quit your job for a new one. The bad facets of the old job are gone, the good facets of the new job are apparent, and the bad facets of the new job are not yet known. Over time, as these bad facets are recognized, a “hangover effect” can occur, in which overall satisfaction with the new job decreases. Withdrawal pattern starts with reduced organizational citizenship behaviour, then lateness, then absenteeism, then turnover Organizational commitment ○ Organizational commitment:attitude that reflects the strength of the linkage between the employee and organization ○ Affective commitment → continuance commitment → normative commitment ○ 1. Affective commitment: commitment based on identification with the company ex. Identify/agree with the company purpose, mission, product, service. People want to stay ○ 2. Continuance commitment: commitment because of the cost incurred if you left the company. Ex. you get paid a lot here, even though you don’t like it, so you stay. It’s a cost benefit analysis. People feel they have to stay. ○ 3. Normative commitment: commitment based on feeling of obligation to the company. Ex. the company needs you too much, or you feel like you’ll let people down. People feel they should stay. High levels of commitment to a particular form or style of organization can cause a lack of innovation and lead to resistance when a change in the culture is necessary Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 Week 3 Perception The process of interpreting the messages of our senses to provide order and meaning to the environment Interpreting: Takes 3 seconds for us to filter in our brain what we think of someone by paying attention to their physical features Order: the order of what you go after, based on needs and values Humans are meaning making machines Perceptual defence: we see what we want to see Components of Perception Perceiver: perceiver’s experience, needs and emotions can affect their perception of the target (motivational state, personality, what you bring to the party) Target: Perception involves interpretations of the target. Ambiguous targets are susceptible to improper interpretation Situation: context ex. Timing can affect what one perceives (distractions due to their physical appearance) Perceiver is looking at a target interpreting them from their situation Social Identity Theory 1. People (perceivers) form perceptions of themselves (target) based on their characteristics and memberships in social categories (situation) Ex. You judge yourself based on what things you are a part of and behave differently. You can be arrogant because you go to private school. 2. People (perceivers) form perceptions of others (target) based on their memberships in social categories (situation) Ex. you judge others based on social categories someone is in Person’s sense of self is comprised of a personal and social identity Prototype: most typical attribute embodied by members who belong to a social category. Ex. A Western student must be a partyer 5 Stage Perceptual Process 1. Environmental Stimuli: Sensory overload can occur when there are too many stimuli (everything around us) for a person to process. 2. Observation: We use our 5 senses (feeling, hearing, seeing, smelling, tasting) plus intuition 3. Perceptual selection: Since only some of the stimuli in the environment are sensed, perceptual selection limits what will be perceived. External factors (size, intensity, contrast ex. Moving coloured objects) and internal factors (perceiver influenced: familiarity, source credibility) affect what you choose to pay attention to. Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 4. Perceptual organization/construction: What is perceptually selected is due in part of what others are perceiving. Perceptual grouping. Construction and creating your reality. Ex. Thinking about how he would be a great boss. Ex. proximity, similarity 5. Interpretation: Attribution errors. Attribution: when we assign a meaning or cause to what we’ve perceived. It’s deadly because your work decisions depend on it. Bruner’s Model of the Perceptual Process How does the perceiver go about putting together the information contained in the target and the situation to form a picture of the target? Bruner explains 1-4 in the 5 stage perceptual process. Be able to compare Bruner and 5 stage perceptual processes. Our brain is not linear. Bruner’s model of the perceptual process suggests that we are very receptive to cues provided by the target and the situation when we encounter an unfamiliar target. However, as we discover familiar cues, we quickly categorize the target and process other cues in a selective manner to maintain a consistent and constant picture of the target Unfamiliar target encountered ex. New coworker (1. environment stimuli) Openness to target cues ex. Search for information (2. observation) Familiar cues encountered ex. Co-worker is a Stanford grad (3. perceptual selection) Target categorized Ex. “good man” with “good potential” (4. perceptual construction) Cue selectivity ex. Performance is ignored (3. perceptual selection) Categorization strengthened ex. Co-worker is still “good man” with “good potential” (4. perceptual construction) Attribution Attribution: The process by which causes or motives are assigned to explain people’s behaviours. There’s 2 attributions: ○ Internal attribution: Dispositional attributions. Perception that outcomes are due to personality or intellect rather than situation or environment. Mental health would be internal. ○ External attribution: Situational attributions. Perception that outcomes are due to situation or environment rather than the person. Ex. High performance on the exam due to it being easy questions instead of your ability. Attribution cues: They are like pieces of data. 3 implicit questions guide our decisions as to whether we should attribute the behaviour to dispositional or situational cases: ○ 1. Consistency cues - does the person engage in the behaviour regularly and consistently? Provides info about an employee’s performance over time. Ex. If someone has good work but just recently has bad work, then the problem has low consistency for it. ○ 2. Consensus cues - Do most people engage in the behaviour, or is it unique to this person? Provides an opportunity for comparison across employees. Ex. If everyone has bad work, then it's a high consensus. ○ 3. Distinctiveness cues - Does the person engage in the behaviour in many situations, or is it distinctive to one situation? Provides comparison across tasks. Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 Ex. If someone has only 1 bad work but the rest is good, then the problem is highly distinctive. 9 Perceptual Errors 1. Biases in attribution: ○ Fundamental attribution error - tendency and error to overemphasize dispositional/internal explanations for behaviour instead of situational/external explanations. Observers first blame the target instead of the situation. ○ Actor observer effect - Propensity for actors and observers to view the causes of the actor’s behaviour differently. Observer sees the problem as an internal attribute, while the actor sees the problem as an external attribute. ○ Self serving bias - tendency to take credit for successful outcomes and to deny responsibility for failures 2. Stereotyping: tendency to generalize about people in a social category and ignore variations among them. When we tend to attribute to someone that is prototypifying a group they belong to. Stereotyping is a barrier to valuing diversity. 3. Self fulfilling prophecy: Occurs when our expectations about another person cause that person to act in a way that is consistent with those expectations. If you see a type of group as lazy, then you’ll treat them as lazy people such as giving them less work. 4. Halo: One trait forms a general impression. When you have a favourable or unfavourable impression of someone, and you have a tendency to spread that impression to other characteristics. Ex. Lana is hardworking. Her boss loves her and it shadows/covers her other bad traits. 5. Projection: The tendency for perceivers to attribute their own thoughts and feelings to others. I believe others see things the way I do. Ex. Telling your classmates accounting is easy. 6. Implicit personality theories: Personal theories that people have about which personality characteristics go together. Ex. If Lana is aggressive, that is also associated with mean. Or it can be associated with being hardworking. 7. Primacy effect: The tendency for a perceiver to rely on early cues or first impressions 8. Recency effect: The tendency for a perceiver to rely on recent cues or last impressions 9. Reliance on central traits: Personal characteristics of a target person that are of particular interest, or what the perceiver prefers. Ex. Physical appearance, height, weight. Ex. hiring someone because they went to the same school as you. Central traits can go beyond physical characteristics. 4 Situation dilemmas in the workplace related to perception 1. Perception and workforce diversity: stereotyping and not valuing diversity. It’s been proven that more diversity improves a company’s performance for many reasons. 2. Perceptions of trust: Willingness to be vulnerable and take risks with respects to the actions of someone. When the perception of trust is broken, it causes organizational Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 problems. Employees trust their management based on their ability, benevolence, integrity, and fairness 3. Perceived organizational support (POS): employees believe their organization values and cares about their wellbeing. High POS improves job satisfaction. (shows support, fairness, rewards, job conditions, job enrichment, and HR) 4. Perception in human resource management: How we recruit, select, compensation etc. depends on our perception of someone HBR Articles & Textbook The greatest failure of industrial and organization is the unwillingness to give up a much loved evaluation approach driven by 2 factors: ○ Managers are overconfident about their own expertise ○ Dislike deferring to more structured approaches that might outsource human judgement to a machine, therefore jobs still do unstructured interviews where boss talks to and judges the applicant Interviewers look for someone like themselves Best way to have a less bias hiring process is to have work sample tests, structured interviews, and comparative evaluations Removing names from applications makes hiring more equal for all genders and races, and in studies, more women were hired when their gender was unknown People who are attractive tend to be seen as good too and get paid more (beauty premium and ugly penalty) but after a study it showed it was because attractive people tend to be healthier and have better personalities Resume whitening: changing their name and removing ethnic associations from their resume The only place with less gender stereotyping is in performance evaluations Signalling theory: job applicants interpret their recruitment experience as signals to what it’ll be like to work there Contrast effect: applicants interviewed before the current applicant have an effect on how the interviewer sees them. Ex. in school, we like to present after a bad presentation to make us look better. Structured interviews means having evaluation standardization, question sophistication, question consistency among applicants, and not asking personal questions Morning bias: supervisors rate employees with earlier start times a higher job performance, because they think people who work at a later time are lazier Similar to me effect: giving more favourable evaluations to people who are similar to them Frame of reference (FOR) training: providing raters with a common frame of reference to use when rating individuals to prevent biases Rater errors: ○ Leniency - tendency to perceive someone’s performance as good ○ Harshness - tendency to perceive someone’s performance as bad ○ Central tendency - tendency to perceive someone’s performance as average Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 Week 4 (Chapter 2,5,6) Motivation: the persistent effort directed toward a goal. It’s the number 1 problem facing organizations today. HBR Article: what are the 4 most common reasons for why people lose motivation? 1. Values mismatch ex. I don’t care about it, therefore I’m lacking motivation 2. Lack of self efficacy ex. I don’t think I’m able to do it 3. Disruptive emotions ex. Anxiety, anger, and depression getting in the way 4. Attribution errors ex. I don’t know why I’m struggling or what went wrong Critical questions about motivation 1. What gets behaviour started? 2. What determines the magnitude or intensity of behaviour? 3. What causes behaviour to stop? 4 Basic characteristics of motivation 1. Effort: the strength of a person’s work related behaviour 2. Persistence: persistence of effort, how determined are you? How mad/hangry are you? 3. Direction of effort: where/how the person channels persistent effort,are they channeling their motivation for the benefit of the firm? (don’t put all your eggs in one basket) 4. Goals: what is the purpose/objective of my effort? (Simon Sinek - start with why) Intrinsic vs Extrinsic motivation People can have a combination of both ex. Getting a pay raise but you still did the work bc you loved it Intrinsic motivation: ○ Motivation that stems from the direct relationship between the worker and the task ○ Feel accomplished, challenged, like they’re growing ○ Not stimulated/bored = craving more intrinsic motivation ○ Strongly related to higher quality of work, better for complex tasks Extrinsic motivation ○ Motivation that stems from the work environment external to the task ○ Something is applied to you (things from the work environment) ○ Promotion, increased vacation time, money (raise/bonus) ex. Pavlov dogs Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 ○ Strongly related to quantity of work, better for boring tasks Relationship between motivation and performance What variables could affect this relationship: ○ Emotions and moods of coworkers ○ Lack of self efficacy ○ Biased managers ○ Your values not being met ○ General cognitive ability (an individual’s overall capacity and efficiency to mentally process, understand, and learn information) and motivation are necessary for good performance. Therefore it’s possible to be highly motivated and have low performance if you don’t have general cognitive ability 3 C’s of Motivation: content approach to motivation, cognitive processing approach to motivation, contextual theories of motivation C1: Content approaches to motivation Focus on needs and motives What are their needs? Be able to compare and contrast the 4 content theories Read about each of the guys in the texbook 1. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs A 5 level hierarchical need theory of motivation The notion of prepotency: the lowest level of unsatisfied need has the greatest motivating potential. You work up the triangle (refer to HBR 2) Connected to intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (lower are extrinsic, higher are intrinsic) ○ Physiological needs (lowest order/basic need) ex. Water, food, shelter ○ Safety needs (lower order/basic need) ex. Security, employment ○ Affiliation needs (belongingness) ex. Friends ○ Esteem needs ex. Respect, status, promotions ○ Self actualization ex. Be the best you can be 2. Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory Agreed with Maslow The satisfaction progression hypothesis: motivators can only be motivating if the hygiene factors are first fulfilled (the same as Notion of Prepotency) Hygiene factors: ○ Quality of interpersonal relations among peers, supervisors, and subordinates ○ Job security ○ Working conditions, salary Motivators: ○ Work itself, responsibility, advancement, growth Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 ○ Achievement, recognition 3. Alderferg’s ERG Model Alderfer attempted to reformulate Maslow’s hierarchy into a set of 3 basic needs There’s no order, and are all going on at the same time in every human You could substitute one for the other ex. If you couldn’t make friends, you spend more time getting better at your job ○ Existence - similar to physiological and safety needs (extrinsic) ○ Relatedness - similar to belongingness and self esteem needs ○ Growth - similar to self actualization needs (intrinsic) 4. McClelland’s Three Needs McClelland wanted to know the behavioural consequences of needs Need for achievement ○ High: love to accomplish tasks, maintain high standards, great work ethic, love healthy competition, create goals, wants performance feedback Need for power ○ High: love to influence people, exert control, seek out positions of leadership Need for affiliation ○ High: love interactions, friendships, love connections and networking What do content theories suggest managers do? 1. Content theory implies that you must understand and appreciate diversity, people’s needs are different, people have different intrinsic and extrinsic motivations 2. Develop as many one on one relationships as possible 3. Grouping people with similar needs is next best idea 4. Be aware of the personal and professional line to not cross 5. Help people turn their needs into performance related goals and actions New consideration Self Determination Theory: an approach that relates the satisfaction of 3 basic psychological needs to autonomous or controlled motivation. We gravitate to work environments that match our needs. Belongs to C1 because it’s about needs. Difference between this and Maslow is there’s no hierarchy Competence + autonomy + relatedness > motivation: autonomous or controlled > effective performance and positive outcomes Work environment set you up with the 3 psychological needs of competence (mastery), autonomy (control) and relatedness (connected with others), leads to autonomous/intrinsic motivation When the work environment does not satisfy those 3 things, the workers have controlled/extrinsic motivation Classical management has controlled motivation Autonomy support: provide employees with encouragement to have initiative Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 Relates to HBR 2 C2: Cognitive/information processing approaches to motivation (What’s going on in your head.) 1. Expectancy theory Argues that motivation is jointly/multiplication of determined by 3 factors (E to P) (P to O) (V) E to P is effort to performance (expectancy) - person’s perception that putting in Effort will result in good Performance. It’s the biggest part. “Whether you think you can or can’t, you’re probably right” P to O is consequence/outcome - Instrumentality (probability that something will lead to an outcome). A person’s perception that successful Performance will result in the attainment of a valuable Outcome/consequence V for valence - extend which the person finds the outcome personally satisfying People will be motivated to perform in those work activities that they find attractive and feel they can accomplish The attractiveness of various work activities depends on the extent to which they lead to favourable personal consequences If pay can satisfy a variety of needs, it should be highly valent, and a good motivator to the extent that it’s clearly tied to performance What does expectancy theory suggest managers to do? Boost expectancies - managers must clarify to workers that E leads to P. “You got this” Clarify reward instrumentality - managers must clarify to workers that P leads to O Appreciate diverse needs - managers must ensure that they provide outcomes that are highly valued. 2. Equity theory Theoretical anchor ○ Cognitive dissonance: dissonance is a motivating state. Feels like inconsistency and unfairness, so you’re motivated to change that. When a person holds two Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 cognitions that are psychologically inconsistent. Ex. if you buy an expensive car, then you are accused of being stupid for buying it, then you’re motivated to get a different car ○ Feeling inequitably ○ Overpaid people rationalize reasoning, underpaid people show more outcomes of perceived inequity Ratio of exchange ○ Input: what you bring to the job ex. Quality of work put in, education, experience ○ Output: what you get ex. pay, recognition, interpersonal relationships, job security Outcomes of perceived inequity include: ○ 1. Alter your inputs (ex. Work harder) ○ 2. Alter outputs (ex. Ask for a pay raise) ○ 3. Cognitively distort inputs and outputs ex. You don’t believe it, to rationalize things for yourself ○ 4. Quit ○ 5. Take actions to change the inputs and outputs of others (sabotage) ○ 6. Stop comparing yourself to others What does equity theory suggest managers to do? Managers should understand people do compare themselves to others Be able to talk about pay grades Have the emotional intelligence to communicate discrepancies and don’t commit projection Have an open door policy, you’re open to listening to employees 3. Goal setting theory Goal specificity - break it down into small steps Goal difficulty/challenge - not too easy, but not impossible Goal acceptance/commitment - you have to want it (intrinsic) Goal feedback - get feedback throughout the process What does goal setting theory suggest managers to do? Meet with subordinates to come with agreed upon goals Understand that people have different goals and reasoning Proximal: short term, Distal: long term goals Regular monitoring in progress checks Make sure goals adhere to the 4 principles MBO: management by objectives. A managerial technique for improving motivation and performance using goal setting principles. Ex. smart goals Learning goal orientation is better than performance prove or avoid orientation Dark side of goal setting is too much high performing goals can lead to unethical behaviour to complete them due to depletion of self regulatory resources Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 Motivation varies across nations ex. Individualistic countries like self actualization more than collective countries who like belongingness C3: Contextual Theories of Motivation (What can I alter in the situation to get the employee to behave better) 1. Reinforcement theory (operant learning - a broad form of conditioning) X Y axis in the graph - x axis: stimulus pleasant or unpleasant, y axis: applying or taking away from worker Classification of reinforcement situations: 1. Positive reinforcement - pleasant stimulus is applied to a person following a behaviour, the behaviour is likely to occur again (ex. Increase pay) 2. Negative reinforcement - unpleasant stimulus is applied following a behaviour, its removed when the behaviour doesn’t occur (ex. Complaining until you stop) Remove negative action. 3. Punishment - unpleasant stimulus occurs after bad behaviour. 4. Extinction - pleasant stimulus stops to stop behaviour from occurring (ex. raising expectations by removing praises) Examples of organizational learning programs: OB-Mod: managerial technique designed to change employee behaviour on the job using reinforcement theory. ○ Define target behaviour ○ Set reasonable performance goals ○ Measure frequency of behaviour ○ Monitor behaviour ○ Administer rewards Employee recognition programs - ex. awards and ceremonies motivate to work better Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 Training and development programs - ex. More degrees you get, the more money you get. KSA: knowledge, skills, abilities 2. Job design as a motivator Job design is contextual bc it says what can I do to someone’s job to get them to behave better Prosocial motivation: desire to expend effort to benefit other people ex. Call centre employees spent more time trying to raise funds for donations when they were told about people who benefited from the donations Key concepts: Job design - gather data on the structure, content and configuration of people’s jobs and tasks Job scope - Breadth (# of different activities on the job) and depth (degree of control on how they do their work) ex. Profs and managers have high job scopes. Stretch assignments: offer employees opportunities to broaden their skills by working on a variety of tasks, which increases their job scope. Job rotation increases scope too. Job involvement - a cognitive state where one identifies with their job and the importance with their work (you don’t need to have this) Job enlargement vs job enrichment - enlarge: give more work to do, enrichment: design a job to increase intrinsic motivation, quality of worklife, and job involvement. Low “growth needs strength” means you are at lower order of Maslows. Job characteristics model Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 Change the 5 core job characteristics (independent variables) to increase motivation (dependent variables), but it only works if you’ve researched on the employees to see if they have high or low GNS Skilled variety - job involves a variety of activities Task identity - extent which a job involves the completion of a whole identifiable task or piece (more motivated when you know the bigger picture of what your work leads to) Task significance - employee perceives the work to be important Autonomy - job allows the worker to determine how they do the work Feedback from job - performing a job results in the employee receiving feedback Moderators: GNS: Growth needs strength. Degree that an individual values complex and challenging work Knowledge and skill: how much the employee has, people with more skills want more challenging work Context satisfaction: if employees are satisfied with their pay and supervision, they will be up for more challenging work Relational job design Structural properties of work that shape employees opportunities to connect and interact with other people (prosocial motivation) Relational architecture, you see a need to design jobs so people can help others and make a difference (task significance) Ex.This has become a trend bc of climate change, younger people want to redesign jobs Job crafting Self initiated changes that employees make in the job to improve fit/match (autonomy) 1. Increase social job resources - ask for feedback, advice, support 2. Increase structural job resources - making your own changes in the 5 job characteristics 3. Increase challenging job demands - ask to be apart of more things 4. Decrease hindering/negative job demands - tell the manager things that are wrong 3. Money as a motivator (NOT a theory) Pay for performance plans (individuals) ○ Blue collar/production jobs - piece rate pay system jobs or wage incentive system (base hourly rate + piece rate differential bonus for extra work) ○ White collar/professional jobs - lump sum bonuses or commission based system jobs (merit pay plans). But employees have said they don’t see a consistent correlation with performance and pay increases. Using pay to motivate teamwork (team) Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 ○ 1. Profit sharing: return of company profit to employees in the form of cash bonus or retirement supplement (Top hat profit sharing plan: executives only, this is classical and higher power distance) ○ 2. Gain sharing plan: group pay incentive plan based on productivity or performance improvements over which the workforce has control (human resources approach, intrapreneurial) ○ 3. Employee stock ownership plan: incentive plans that allow employees to own a set amount of company shares. It’ll make them work harder so the company is profitable and they get better returns ○ 4. Skill based pay system: people are paid according to number of job skills they acquire 4. Alternative motivation methods (NOT a theory) Alternate work schedules: ○ Flex time - arrival and departure times are flexible and up to the employee ○ Compressed work week - less than 5 work days if you can work harder in less days ○ Job sharing - two part time jobs doing one job ○ Work sharing - reducing number of hours per employee to avoid layoffs when there’s a reduction in normal business activity ○ Remote working - telecommuting/work from home Alternative (non-monetary) incentives ○ Perks and benefits ○ ex. Discounts, gym memberships, vacation time Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 Week 5A (Chapter 11) The dollar auction video is a demonstration of the escalation of commitment. It’s non-rational and based on your commitment to your money. The train problem looks at our human limitations as moral agents in decision making. We aren’t perfectly rational. ill structured problems: existing state, desired state, problem and solution are unclear Well structured problems: existing state, desired state, problem and solution is clear Program: standardized way of solving a problem ex. Rules, procedures The rational decision making process The process is prescriptive. Describes what people should do. Happens in classical approach 1. Identify: Identify problem 2. Search: Search for relevant info 3. Develop: develop alternative solutions to the problem 4. Evaluate: evaluate alternative solutions 5. Choose: choose best solution 6. Implement: implement chosen solution 7. Monitor and evaluate: monitor and evaluate chosen solution Perfect Rationality Perfect rationality: decision strategy that’s completely informed, perfectly logical, and oriented toward economic gain. You evaluate ALL possible options. The prototype is the economic person who's a perfect, cool, calculating decision maker. This is not the average person. These perfectly rational characteristics don’t exist in real decision makers Decisions are based on careful and calculated understanding on absolutely everything Bounded Rationality Bounded rationality: decision strategy that relies on limited info and reflects time constraints and political considerations (ex. Picking bc of our parents opinion) HBR Articles Root out the bias from your decision making process ○ Ask yourself tough questions ○ Get the right people involved ○ Admit to your preconceptions and errors ○ Subject your thinking to someone who can challenge you (positive disruptor: a “friendly”) Future of decision making ○ Less intuition and more evidence Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 9 Reasons why bounded rationality occurs 1. Framing ○ Aspects of the presentation of info about a problem that are assumed by decision makers ○ How a problem is framed/presented can lead the decision maker to a certain decision ○ Ex. marketing and sales since they try to influence your decisions ○ Gain vs lose or positive vs negative language are manipulative ways 2. Cognitive biases ○ Tendencies to acquire and process info in an error prone way ○ Heuristic: judgement shortcut, rule of thumb ○ Availability bias - when we use past events and associated decisions depending on how available they are in our memory. Ex. thinking Apple has more sales than a company we don’t know ○ Representativeness bias - make a decision representative of our stereotypes and beliefs. Ex. If a hospital counted baby boys and girls born, we would assume it was a mix of boys and girls, not all boys 3. Problems with problem identification ○ Perceptual defense - certain problems are ignored/ selected out ○ Problem defined in terms of functional specialty - depending on ex. your career, you will see problems differently than someone else ex. Looking through an HR eye lenses ○ Problem defined in terms of solution - Jump to conclusions ○ Problem diagnosed in terms of symptoms - people see symptoms for different problems 4. Problems with information search ○ Confirmation bias - tendency to seek out info that conforms one’s own definition of a solution to a problem. Research things that prove your opinion only. Can cause you to be overconfident ○ Information overload - reception/taking in more info that is necessary to make decisions, and you can’t handle it all. It’s voluntary or involuntary. Ex. perfectionists want to take in everything before making a decision ○ Not invented here bias - ignore or harbour negative attitudes towards ideas from outside one’s own organization’s team ex. Cults increase the distance between members and the public 5. Alternative development, evaluation & choice ○ Maximization: perfectly rational decision makers choose what creates maximum value. 2 common things that get in the way are: Anchoring effect - inadequate adjustment of subsequent estimates from an initial estimate that serves as an anchor. We use an anchor (pivot point, foundation, bench mark) to make comparisons to, and then make a decision. Ex. your parents are your anchor and say you must have a Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 salary above a certain point. Then you’ll use this for all your decisions when accepting jobs. Satisficing - establishing an adequate level of acceptability for a solution to a problem and then screening solutions until one that exceeds this level is found. We will continue to generate alternatives until one that is good enough comes along. Ex. perfectionists are never satisfied. 6. Problems when risk is involved ○ When people view a problem as a choice between losses, they tend to make risky decisions ○ When people view a problem as a choice between gains, they tend to make conservative decisions ○ Risk: what happens when people have to handle the unknown ○ Tolerance for ambiguity: ready to embrace uncertainty ○ Attitudes toward risk: risk averse (against risk), risk taking, risk neutral is a continuum 7. Problems with solution implementation ○ Decision makers are often dependent on others to implement their decisions, and it might be difficult to anticipate their ability and motivation to do so ○ Reliance on others is what causes problems in the rational process Sequential - assembly line reliance ex. Workers have to wait for people before them to finish their work Reciprocal - working with people at the same time ex. PDP assignment 8. Problems with solution evaluation ○ Justification: of a faculty decision in order to avoid dissonance ○ Sunk costs: permanent losses of resources incurred as a result of a decision. People still try to use these sunk costs even though they shouldn’t. This leads to escalation of commitment ○ Escalation of commitment: the tendency to invest additional resources (time, money, ego) in an apparently failing course of action ex. Dollar auction, staying in a relationship when you know you should break up ○ When the pain of the present is higher than the pain of the unknown is when people leave their escalation of commitment ○ Hindsight: review the decision making process to find what was done right/wrong after it’s been done. Take credit if it went well, blame others if it didn’t go well ○ 1. Reasons for escalation: dissonance reduction, social norm for consistent behaviour (groupthink), motivation to not appear wasteful, the way the problem is framed, personality, moods, emotions ○ 2. Prevention of escalation: have a buddy to play devil’s advocate ○ 3. How to use theory to increase commitment (later in the course, we’ll learn how to use positive escalation of commitment to get new employees) 9. Problems with emotion and mood ○ Emotion can: Correct ethical errors (ex. Whistleblowers have high/passionate emotions) Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 Aid in developing creative solutions to problems Be distracting and unsettling to decision making and lead to poor choices ○ Mood can affect: Information recall (ex. People with positive moods recall positive info) Evaluation (ex. Positive mood people evaluate things more positively) Time reference (ex. Positive mood people overestimate the likelihood that good things will happen) Projected outcomes (ex. Positive mood people use shortcuts and tend to not be as rational as negative mood people) Creativity (ex. Positive mood people promote more creative solutions) ○ It’s about their currently positive or negative mood affecting their decision making, it’s not personality Groupthink symptoms Illusion of invulnerability - overconfident Rationalization - excuses are made for any counter arguments Illusion of morality - decisions made are seen as morally right Stereotypes of outsiders - ex. That company doesn’t know what they’re doing Pressure for conformity - members feel they have to conform Self censorship - members convince themselves to ignore other opinions Illusion of unanimity - perceived unanimous support for decisions Mindguards - some members protect the group from outsider POVs Group decisions Risky shift: groups make riskier decisions than individuals Conservative shift: groups make safer decisions than individuals Either one can happen, it depends on the people in the group and if they are more conservative or risky people Formal groups: groups made by organizations Informal groups: groups naturally formed between people Task forces/project teams: temporary groups to accomplish goals Committees: permanent groups that handle recurring assignments Approaches to improve decision making Evidence based management: make decisions using best available evidence from multiple sources Crowdsourcing: allow a large group of people to decide. Ex.business doesn’t know what colour teen girls want in next season's clothes, so they ask the public through IG Analytics: find patterns in the data Big data: Term for different types of data collected in real time from consumers ex.search history, GPS, online shopping records. Google profit greatly off it. Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 Week 5B (Chapter 10) What helps/hinders sender to receiver communication 6 Stage model of communication 1. Thinking (sender) - what you hope your audience learns/understands 2. Encoding (sender) - deciding the best way/how to relay the message. ex. Writing, audio 3. Transmitting (sender) - what’s the method to relay the message. Choice of delivery. ex. In person. 4. Perceiving (receiver) - taking in and throwing out info given (5 stage perceptual model) 5. Decoding (receiver) - breaking the info you took in, it’s active 6. Understanding (receiver) - what you leave with What is communication Communication: the process by which information is exchanged between a sender and a receiver Effective communication is when the right people receive the right information in a timely manner (right people: do you know your audience) (timely: best and efficient way) Organizational communication (Formal) Chain of command ○ Channel of how info flows through an organization. Ex. president, vice president, senior leader etc. (who reports to who, seen in organizational chart) ○ Lines of authority and formal reporting relationships ○ 3 necessary forms: Communication upward - ex. Talk to your boss Communication across/horizontal - ex. Talking to your coworkers Communication downward - ex. Talk to factory workers/ppl below you ○ Straight chain of demand is up and down only Deficiencies/problems with chain of command Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 ○ 1. Failure to consider informal communication - employees are talking to each other (horizontal) ○ 2. Filtering (messages are watered down) - increase number of links/levels in the chain leads to greater filtering. Ex. broken telephone game ○ 3. Slowness - people have to wait to get an answer from upper management Effective manager-employee communication Too many problems exist bc of the lack of communication about these issues: ○ Job expectations: what, why, how and who ○ How employees should allocate their time ○ How long it should take to learn a job ○ The importance employees attach to pay ○ The amount of authority employees have ○ Skills and abilities of employees ○ Employee performance and obstacles to good performance ○ Manager’s leadership style Effective communication Requires free flow of information: ○ Voice - constructive expression of disagreement about work ○ Psychological safety - shared belief that it’s safe to take social risks ○ Mum effect - avoid communicating unfavourable news to others. Message turns confusing and vague bc person doesn’t want to say it. Self censorship happens when employees feel like they have no voice or psychological safety (climate of silence) The grapevine An organization’s informal communication network/channel. Cuts across formal lines of communication. Ex. employees talking to each other at the bar after work Pros: ○ Keeps employees informed ○ Provide a test of employee reactions to proposed changes. Ex. tell your coworker your idea and see how people react before you do the idea ○ Potential informal recruiting source. Ex. referrals for jobs Cons: ○ Pipeline for rumours (unverified belief) Why do people gossip? ○ For sources of information that’s not available through formal channels ○ It’s an alternative form of power and influence ○ Way to release pent up emotions ○ Provide social and intellectual stimulation Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 Verbal language of work Jargon: specialized language used by job holders or members of particular occupations or organizations (ex. I need a nurse in room 12 stat.) Pros and cons of the use of jargon ○ Can be efficient in communication (as long as people know it) ○ Common basis of interaction (feeling connected) ○ Can be a barrier for people who don’t know ○ Make people feel insecure when they don’t know the jargon ex. New employee Non-verbal language of work The transmission of messages by some medium other than speech or writing 1. Body language (ex. facial expressions - actually most common around world) 2. Props, artifacts, costumes (ex. Clothing, office decor and arrangement, family pictures, artwork, messy vs tidy office) Non-verbal language in Friend’s video: eye contact, physical appearance, facial expression, posture, spatial behaviour, hand gestures Gender differences in communication - they aren’t right/wrong, just recognize differences and adapt accordingly ○ Getting credit ○ Confidence and boasting ○ Asking questions ○ Apologies ○ Feedback ○ Compliments ○ Ritual opposition ○ Managing up and down ○ Indirectness Cross cultural communication - cultural intelligence (higher CI, better cross cultural communication) (many failures in business are due to cross cultural communication) ○ Dimensions: Language differences (dialects) Non-verbal communication Etiquette and politeness (ex. dining etiquette) Social conventions (ex. Expectation for greeting with hellos, being late) Cultural context (high context - Communication is drawn from surroundings/ambiance, less words ex. Europe, slurping soup in Asia. Low context - communication is provided explicitly usually with words ex. Canada) ○ Important precautions: Assume differences until you know otherwise Recognize differences in cultures Watch your language and theirs Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 Hand Gestures from video Okay sign Horn/rock sign Fingers all together/Italian gesture Thumbs up Crossed fingers Note from Teal To be able to see the forest or the trees. Forest is the big picture. Trees are details. Information on Richness Info Richness: potential info carrying capacity of a communication medium ex. Email, at a podium, video conference. Degree of synchronization: degree info is synchronized with sender and receiver. High synchronization is face to face talking. Low synchronization is emails, texting, has delay Degree of nonverbal paraverbal cues: extent both parties can receive nonverbal (body language) and paraverbal (voice/tone) High is face to face, video calls. Low is text Non routine messages should have rich medium (high synchronization and nonverbal paraverbal cues) such as during a firing or hiring. Routine messages don’t need a rich medium, such as a message about lunch break. Personal approaches to improving communication Take the time Be accepting of the other person Don’t confuse the person with the problem (don’t do halo effect) Say what you feel Listen actively Give timely/quick and specific feedback Assume differences until you know otherwise Recognize differences in cultures (cultural intelligence) Watch your language and theirs (emotional intelligence) Organizational manager approaches to improving communication Employer branding - Am I promoting a clear and consistent image of the positive and distinctive features of my organization? Provision of explanations - Am I providing explanations to policies? 360 degree feedback - Collecting info about my communication success from people above and below me. Employee surveys and feedback - Are there anonymous surveys/feedbacks from people who work below me Suggestion systems - Employees can give suggestions to managers Intranets and webcasts - Online places to get info and training Management training - Giving managers training Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 Week 7 (FINAL EXAM) (Chapter 7, 11 - beginning of meso) Groups Group: 2 or more people interacting interdependently to achieve a common goal (vision, mission, strategy, goal, action) Formal groups: established organizations to facilitate the achievement of organizational goals ex. Job project Informal groups: emerge naturally in response to common interests of the organization’s members ex. Play on softball team Groups form because means (group can be a way to accomplish something) versus ends (having the group itself is what you desire) and personal characteristics (join because you have similar characteristics, OR you are all opposites and are together) Stages of group development 1. Forming: What are we doing here? What are others like? What’s our purpose? 2. Storming: Conflict often emerges, sorting out roles and responsibilities is an issue 3. Norming: norms are agreed on and the group becomes more cohesive 4. Performing: The group devotes its energies toward task accomplishment 5. Adjourning: Group disperses after achieving goals Groups develop through a series of stages over time Each stage presents the members with a series of challenges they must master in order to achieve the next stage Groups can vary in terms of how quickly they walk through the stages Practical Learnings from the stage model 1. A good tool for monitoring and troubleshooting how groups are developing 2. Especially helpful for new groups to understand the process of developing together. Greenfield: new team 3. Well acquainted task forces and committees can short circuit these stages when they have a problem to work out 4. Storming and norming may not be necessary for some organizational setting that are highly structured (you’re told what to do, so there’s no opportunity to storm) Punctuated equilibrium model A model of group development that describes how groups with deadlines (time) are affected by their first meetings and crucial midpoint transitions Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 Practical learnings from the punctuated equilibrium model 1. Prepare carefully for the first meeting. Have motivation and excitement for the project 2. As long as people are working, don’t look for radical progress during phase 1 (not much progress happens in phase 1) 3. Manage the midpoint transition carefully. You should make the midpoint earlier (model says the exact halfway point, but in real life it’s just when procrastination ends and you are motivated to work, which is usually past halfway) 4. Be sure that adequate resources are available prior to phase 2 5. Resist deadline changes Group structure As groups become larger, they suffer from process losses - performance difficulties that results from the problems of motivating and coordinating larger groups Difficulties are in communication, conflict, stress, diversity (become socially elaborate) Actual performance = potential performance - process losses 1. Size What’s the ultimate group size? (depends on the task) (form follows function) Size & satisfaction, size & performance Depends on the task ○ Additive task - group performance is dependent on the sum of the performance of individual group members (more people the better) ○ Disjunctive task - group performance is dependent on the performance of the best group member (ex. research team looking for a cure. More people is better) ○ Conjunctive task - group performance is limited by the performance of the poorest group member (ex. Assembly line, things are dependent on others) 2. Diversity of group membership Diverse groups might take longer to do their forming, storming, and norming Diverse groups sometimes perform better when the tasks requires cognitive, creativity demanding tasks and problem solving rather than routine work (don’t waste diverse brains on routines) Negative effects of surface diversity (ex. Age, race) are small and wear off over time 3. Norms (vs rules) Collective expectations that members of social units have regarded the behaviour of each other. It provides regularity, predictability, and psychological security ○ 1. dress norms: aka appearance ○ 2. reward allocation norms: equity (reward depending on inputs), equality (reward equally. There’s a pay grade/range), reciprocity (reward ppl the way they reward you. You help me, I help you), social responsibility (reward those that need the reward) Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 ○ 3. performance norms: behaviour while you’re at work. Norms about absenteeism is different depending on the manager ○ 4. social interaction norms: behaviour while you’re off work. Norms about how coworkers interact after work. Rules are formal and stated, it defines boundaries Norms are informal and not stated 4. Roles Positions in a group that have a set expected behaviours and responsibilities attached to them Assigned roles (formally given) vs emergent roles (developed naturally ex.Class clown) Job description: what are the roles and responsibilities Job specification: minimum qualifications needed to be a candidate for the job Key issues: ○ Role ambiguity - don’t know what/how to do it (due to organizational factors, role sender, focal person) ○ Role conflict - there’s incompatible role expectations due to intrasender (ex. take it easy, but it’s due tomorrow or always changing mind), intersender (ex. middle manager conflict between boss and employees), interrole (multiple roles) or person-role conflict (conflict between personality and job) ○ Status effects - perceived superiority like “i'm the CEO, you know nothing” Role issues leads to job dissatisfaction, lower commitment, higher stress and turnover Group cohesiveness The degree to which a group is especially attractive to its members (want to be together and talk well of each other) 1. Threat and competition: if people all want to be the best, they will work together well 2. Success: if groups are successful they like each other more, reciprocal with cohesion 3. Member diversity: diverse members take time to develop cohesiveness, but will end with a strong group 4. Size: large groups are harder to be cohesive 5. Toughness of initiation: Higher cohesion in hard to join groups bc ppl are proud. Ex. yacht clubs Consequences of cohesiveness: ○ More participation in group activities - There’s decrease voluntary turnover ○ More conformity - groupthink ○ More success - each individual's performance is similar in cohesive groups ○ More success in reciprocal relationships - high cohesion groups that accept a firm’s norm have high productivity. If they don’t accept a firm’s norm, they have low productivity Questions to ponder & Video Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 Group dynamics are the most powerful forces in psychology, because group members can influence others in 2 ways: how they think and behave. Ex. Bystander apathy Asch experiment looks at conformity (line experiment) People conform because they want to be liked, and not rock the boat Will conform to group decisions even if they don’t believe what the group is saying Social loafing Tendency to withhold physical or intellectual effort when performing a group task Members exert less effort when working in teams then working alone It’s a process loss, people can hide in the group, its the group members that don’t work Social inhibition: decrease individual effort due to more group members Social facilitation: improve individual effort due to more group members Social loafing comes in the form of free rider effect (social loafers want a free ride) or sucker effect (other ppl work less due to the social loafer’s unfairness/equity) How to counteract social loafing? ○ Make individual performance more visible (call people out) ○ Make sure the work is interesting ○ Increase feelings of indispensability (make person believe their work is important) ○ Increase performance feedback (tell person what they should do) ○ Reward group performance Teams Not all groups are teams, but all teams were groups Team is more than a group Group becomes a team when there is: ○ Strong sense of shared commitment (we’re on the same page) ○ When there’s synergy that develops such that group efforts are greater than the sum of its parts (2+2=5) Collective efficacy: each team member believes they can effectively perform their task, and have faith in their group members Team reflexivity: belief in adaptability, engagement, trust building (soft skills) in the group, teams discuss and reflect on team processes and goals Types of teams 1. Process improvement teams: ex. teams to improve efficiency of producing a product or service. Gain sharing is the motivation pay system. 2. Self managed work teams: (most common) Work team that has the opportunity to do challenging work under some form/continuous supervision. Different levels of autonomy (management involvement). High autonomy means employees have full control. Ex. PDP was moderate autonomy because partners were picked, and work was marked by TA, but we did everything else. ex. teams with full, reduced, or no supervision 3. Cross functional: Teams with functional areas of expertise. People are sme (subject matter expert) ex. team with people from HR, marketing, accounting Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 4. Virtual teams: There’s no hub or central gathering geographically. Primary feature is no physical face to face contact. Virtual teams use technology to communicate and collaborate across time, space and other boundaries. There can always be miscommunications. ex. teams that spans the globe Self managed work team factors Task: ○ Challenge: should be difficult enough but not impossible ○ Complexity: only put diverse brains on complex tasks, don't waste your diverse brains on routine ○ Interdependence: sequential (assembly line reliance, one at a time) and reciprocal (working with people at the same time) Group composition: ○ Stability: there has to be trust and understanding among the group ○ Size: size depends on the task (additive, conjunctive, disjunctive) Should be as small as feasible/possible. ○ Expertise: have enough SME (subject matter experts) ○ Diversity: members similar enough to work together, yet diverse enough to bring a variety of perspectives. Support: ○ Training: can’t expect a team to be successful unless they have enough technical, social, language, and business acumen training. ○ Rewards: there’s 4 pay systems (profit sharing, gain sharing, employee stock ownership plan, skill based pay system) ○ Management: managers must not see autonomy as threatening, be able to give more responsibility to workers Cross functional team factors Cross functional: bring people with different functional specialties together to do a task. 6 principles for effectiveness. 1. Composition - all relevant specialties are important, no one is overlooked 2. Superordinate goals - attractive outcomes only achievable with collaboration 3. Physical proximity - team members must be physically located close to each other 4. Autonomy - Upper management shouldn’t micromanage the teams 5. Rules and procedures - rules must be followed to prevent anarchy 6. Leadership - team leaders need strong people skills Virtual team factors Advantages: ○ Around the clock ○ Reduced travel cost/time ○ Larger talent pool Challenges: ○ Trust - ppl typically develop trust through direct contact and socialization Downloaded by France Is ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46266083 ○ Miscommunication - less communication richness ○ Isolation - no casual interactions ex. no lunch time with coworkers ○ Management issues - hard for managers to assess performance and diligence Lessons: ○ Recruitment - choose team members with good interpersonal and intercultural skills ○ Training - train in technical and interpersonal skills. Most issues are due to communication ○ Personalization - encourage team to get to know each other and socialize ○ Leadership - team leaders should define goals, set rules, and provide feedback Group decision making Advantages: ○ Decision quality - higher decision quality than individuals, because they have more ideas and can evaluate them better ○ Decision acceptance and commitment - fully engaged and bonded ○ Diffusion of responsibility - groups can share the burden of failed decisions Disadvantages: ○ Time - takes longer to make decisions due to process losses ○ Conflict - infighting over resources, SMEs debating, political wrangling over territories and jurisdictions ○ Domination - group meetings dominated by a single individual or small coalition, which won’t create synergy ○ Groupthink - feel pressure for conformity How to improve decision making: ○ Devil's advocate - a role someone is appointed/assigned to identify and challenge weaknesses in proposed plans and decisions ○ Whistle blowing - not a role but is a cultural norm, it’s encouraged to have the capacity to call out something wrong ○ Encourage outliers/earning idiosyncratic credit