Animal Cognition Notes PDF

29.10.2024, Introduction, Prof. Dr. Simone Pika, CBC 1 General overview and introduction Practical needs: Predators food source crucial roles in early rituals, folklore, religious beliefs, and figurative art companions ( first was a dog ) Today: pets...

29.10.2024, Introduction, Prof. Dr. Simone Pika, CBC 1 General overview and introduction Practical needs: Predators food source crucial roles in early rituals, folklore, religious beliefs, and figurative art companions ( first was a dog ) Today: pets entertainment Work,sports food and clothing product testing scientific research What are animals?: multicellular eukaryotic organismus consume organic material breathe oxygen are able to move can reproduce sexually How many animal species exist? Animal phylogeny Amazing variety diversity and beauty 2 Animal Cognition refers by the mechanism by which animals: - acquire - process - store - act on the information in the environment these mechanisms include: - perception - learning - memory - decision making distinctions have further been made between - first order process, - and higher-order processes Intelligence: “ Animals must be thinking because they are so intelligent” (e.g., Griffin, 1992) problematic because tendency to view animals as people (‘anthropomorphism’) from our human perspective (‘anthropomorphism’) 3 Explanations of behavior Niklaas Tinbergen 1. How does it work? proximate causation or control How do internal and external factors elicit and control behavior in short term. 2. How did it develop? how did the behaviour arise during the lifetime of the individual? how is behaviour assembled? what factors influence the way in which behavior develops? how do developmental processes work? what is the interplay between the individual and its environment during the assembly? what aspects of the young animal’s behaviour are specialisations for dealing with the problems of early life? 3. What is it for? what is the current use or survival value of the behaviour? how does behaving in a particular way help the individual to survive? how does its behaviour help it to reproduce in its physical and social environment? 4. How did it evolve? how did the behaviour arise during the evolutionary history of the species? what factors have been involved in moulding the behavior ? how can comparisons between different species help to explain this history? how has behaviour itself driven the evolutionary process through mate choice and animals’ adaptability and construction of their environments? 4 Approaches and terms Different research traditions: Psychologists ask: “Can animals do what people do, and if so how do they do it?“ Biologists ask: “Why in all Tinbergen‘s four senses, do animals do what they do in the wild? Learned and innate behavior: learning is often contrasted with genetic or innate control of behavior nature/nurture debate but: learning is only possible for individuals that are ready to be affected by experience in a certain way, behaviours or cognitive processes may develop prefunctionally but can still be modified  05.11.2024, Introduction to Evolution, Pharisimène Tibesar, CBC 1 Introduction to Evolution Humans used to be monkeys? —> False Scientist observed that: Life is diverse but share common traits —> Theory of evolution explains this (Charles Darwin) 2 The theory of evolution - Darwin’s Key Ideas in 1859 he observed: - Individuals vary randomly in a population (group of organisms of the same species living in the same place at the same time) - Individuals vary randomly in a population - Variations can be inherited - More individuals are born that can survive he proposed: Natural selection allows species to evolve - the environment eliminates the individuals which variations are unfavorable - individuals with favorable variations have a better survival - meaning that they can have more offspring —> their variations will be more present in the next generation all species share a common origin Evolution: changes wich through times causes species to change and diverge to produce multiple descendant species Modern Understanding of Evolution (Francis Galton and Gregor Mendel) What is the cause of the observed variations and how can they be inherited? —> DNA: the molecule that carries the information for the appearance and functioning of an organism whales random variations= DNA mutations: errors which occur when the DNA is copied inherited variations= inherited chromosomes from parents: package of DNA Evolution= accumulation of mutations Fitness: an organism’s ability to pass its genetic material to its offspring Natural selection Individuals of a species are born with different mutations The environment (predators, climate, diseases, food availability) causes some individuals to die = environmental pressures Some mutations allow a better survival The individuals who survive better, can have more children and pass on to them their favorable mutation (= adaptation) These adaptations spread in the species changing it gradually Adaptation: an inherited change in structure or behavior that helps a species or individual survive and reproduce better in its environment. Example: horse evolution 35 million years ago the American climate became more dry and the rain forest was replaced by dry grass - for horses, the environmental pressures changed, meaning that different traits became necessary to survive. Natural selection is a driving force of evolution Natural selection allows species to become more adapted to their environment Natural selection can only act on mutations that randomly appear Natural selection can only act on traits that can be inherited What is a Scientific Theory? —> a theory is a generalization supported by a substantial evidence Evidence for Evolution Paleontological Evidence - Fossil record shows a timeline on Earth (Fossil: preserved remains or traces of prehistoric organisms) Example: - Evidence of species transitions (e.g., Archaeopteryx) Comparative Biology - Homologies: Similar traits due to common ancestry, not function - Comparative Anatomy: Similar bone structures in different species Example: forelimbs of mammals, birds and reptiles - Vestigial organs: Traits that have lost their function Example: vestigial legs in Boa constrictor - Comparative Embryology: Similar embryological stages across species Example: Humans and other vertebrates have tails in early development —> Evolution modifies inherited structures Biogeography - Geographic distribution of species explained by evolution - related species often found in nearby locations Example: Species on Bermuda islands and mainland Evolution in Action - Artificial Selection: Humans breed plants and animals for desired traits Example: Dogs, cabbage varieties - Bacterial Resistance: Bacteria evolve resistance to antibiotics i Evolutionary processes Sexual selection Traits evolve because they allow to mate more Mate choice - Females choose males with certain traits Mate competition - Males fight for the accesses to the females, only those with certain traits can have access to them Better reproductive success for males with certain traits, who pass them on to their children —> These traits (even if unpractical) spread in the species changing it gradually Example : the white-tailed deer Non-adaptive evolution ( Adaptive Evolution: evolutionary changes in an organism that make it suitable to its environment ) Non-adaptive evolution: species can evolve in ways that don’t increase their ability to survive in their environment Genetic Drift: Random changes in species DNA Bottleneck Effect: Population drastically reduced Example: Founder Effect: Small population migrates, reducing diversity Example: the American Amish community there are several processes that drive species to evolve all of them do not increase the ability of the species to survive in their environment Speciation Specie: group pf individuals that actually or potentially interbreed in nature But what about organisms that don’t use sexual reproduction? Example: The Mourning Gecko Speciation occurs when populations stop exchanging DNA —> Different mutations accumulate until they are not able to reproduce with each other anymore= they become different species Application Phylogenetic trees Shows relationships between species based on shared ancestry Helps identify the most recent common ancestors Does not indicate which species is more "advanced" or "evolved" because there is not such things Misconceptions - Understanding evolution Evolution does not have a goal or direction Humans did not evolve from monkeys; humans and monkeys share a common ancestor Earlier divergence does not mean a species has more ancestral traits  12.11.2024, Social knowledge and interactions, Kayla Kolff, CBC 1 Introduction Social Cognition definition: process, store and apply informations about other people and social situations- focus on the cognitive processes that play in social interactions. relevance: through social knowledge and social interactions allow animals to adapt to their social environment and form the foundation of group living. Social Knowledge Social Interaction ~ => 2 Social knowledge Individual Recognition relevance: Animals must recognize individuals to track relationships and remember past interactions. (1) Vocal Recognition (2) Visual Recognition (3) Olfactory Recognition Social Memory Relevance: Long-term memory helps animals maintain social bonds and alliances over time. Social Learning Relevance: Animals often learn by observing others, enabling them to pick up skills and social norms without having to directly experience them. (1) Imitation: Copying the actions of others. It involves the copying of behavior, which can range from simple mimicry to more sophisticated forms of social learning (Zentall, 2006) (2) Emulation: An individual observes and replicates the outcome or goal of another’s actions, without necessarily copying the exact behavioral sequence (Hopper, 2010; Tomasello, 1998) Cultural Transmission Relevance: Behaviors can become traditions passed down through generations. Example: Emergence (doing innovative behavior) Propagation (peers notice it and do it also) Modification (all are doing the behavior and also modifying it) Social interactions 3 Cooperation Relevance: individuals work together for mutual benefit or to help others, often increasing the chances of survival or reproductive success. Cooperation can occur between related individuals or between non-relatives, where individuals help others with the expectation of being helped in return, related to altruism. Altruism - A behavior, where an individual helps another at a personal cost, such as reduced chances of survival or reproduction, without any immediate benefit to the helper, with costs and benefits measured in terms of individual fitness (Packer, 1977) (1) Kin selection: Example: Meerkats will guard and protect pups, even if they are not their own, because they are often related to their own offspring —> (2) Reciprocal altruism: Example: Pied flycatchers Competition Relevance: Social groups often involve competition over recourses such as food, mates, or territory. Many species establish hirarchies and navigating these require social knowledge about group member’s ranks and relationships. Conflict resolution Definition: Engaging in a friendly interaction with another individual during or shortly after a conflict. Relevance: Social animals often develop certain strategies to resolve conflicts and maintain group cohesion. (1) Reconciliation (2) Consolation  Social Bonds: Definition: Refer to the long-lasting affiliative interactions formed between individuals in a group Relevance: Strong social bonds in animals enhance survival by promoting cooperation in group defence and recourse sharing, influence reproductive success through pair bonds and kin cooperation, and contribute to group stability by facilitating reconciliation after comflicts. Example: Grooming Communication Relevance: Animals communicate to share information about danger, food, or social standing. Auditory Communication: use of sounds or vocalisations Visual Communication: use of signals, such as body postures, coloration, gestures, facial expressions, or displays Tactile Communication: use of touch Olfactory Communication: relies on sense of smell and involves the use of chemical signals, such as pheromones Coordination Relevance: Involves interpreting signals and responding adequately, enabling coordination where individuals within a species match their behaviours and actions based on communicated information. Importance: Effective communication is key to social cohesion and success in cooperative activities. 4 Learning goals  19.11.2024, Introduction to Communication, Pharisimène Tibesar, CBC 1 Definitions What’s communication? the transmission from one living organism (the sender) to another (the receiver). not limited to animals - plants can communicate as well behavior change in receiver = communication occurred animals communicate through signals: cue: (1) acts or structures produced by signalers can convey information but did not evolved for that purpose (2) evolved for the purpose of conveying information (ex.: fallen hair) to recipients, such that: (3) the information elicits a response in recipients (4) the response evolved to generally benefit both (the signaler and the recepient) Meaning: What information is conveyed: avoid anthropomorphism (assigning human behavior) consistent reaction = key to identifying communication meaning The Cognitive Approach animal communication: complex process where the information is processed each step influenced by: - Receiver’s expectations, experiences, relationships, context communication is interactive and dynamic: >< Instinct- Based Approach communication happens without mental processing (ex.: smartphone app: triggers set response without “understanding” limitations of the cognitive approach: Can’t observe animal thoughts directly 2 Roles of communication Identity: Establish Identity and recognize group members when there are repeated interactions between Individuals Hierarchy: a ranking system in which dominance is associated with asymmetric aggression and priority of access to food, water, shelter, space, receptive mates, etc. —> goal: maintain hierarchy: reducing conflicts within groups, conserving energy Mating: essential in mate attraction and readiness signaling, ensures optimal timing for reproduction Predator warning and defense: warning signals for group protection, Intimidation tactics to deter predators, Territory defense: territory markings to warn intruders —> maintains boundaries and reproduces physical conflict Food access: shares information about food animals can communicate about:  Modalities - Types of Communication : modality: sensory channels used to perceive the information Auditory: Sound-based - can travel far, in the dark, water, etc. - allows for flexible long and complex messages - fades quickly - can be heard by predators Visual: Movement/appearance-based - transferred very quickly (light speed) - can encode a lot of information - can only be used when there is light and vision is not obstructed by obstacles - can be energy costly to produce Olfactory: Chemical-based pheromones: released by animals into the environment that trigger specific behavioral or physiological responses in other individuals of the same species -species specific: different molecule or blend - can be volatile contact - detected by specific organs - can travel far despite obstacles - can’t be detected by every species - slow - little flexibility, little information conveyed Tactile: Touch-based - Grooming, Touching => Multimodal communication Honesty - ensuring reliability Animals could be dishonest to gain advantages in competitive So what keeps communication honest? Un-fakeable signals: some signals are directly tied to physical characteristics, like size or strength (which can not easily be faked) Testing of signalers: recipient often tests signaler’s honesty —> dishonesty is risky Reputation: when individuals interact frequently, past dishonesty has future consequences Dishonest signaling: although honesty is the norm, dishonest signaling does occur in animal communication Evolution From cues to signals signals evolve from simple cues to complex communication  26.11.2024, Gestures, Prof. Dr. Simone Pika, CBC 1 Human uniqueness the human brain consists of a high amount of neurons and connections a brain is not a brain, - brains of primates involve cells that never become bigger - many other orders: the more the neurons the bigger they become neuron numbers in the cortex matter enables - a special form of thinking, cooperation, communication —> human language 3 Human language and evolution Language Evolution Human language express thoughts, emotions, provide information pass on knowledge - enable consists of over 100 acoustically unique phones commonly combined into rapid sequences serves as the main carriers of meaning Human gestures different gesture types - Beat: rhythmic, emphasis - Pointing gesture: emphasis, direction of attention - Iconic gesture: depict specific aspects - Conventional gestures: refer to distinct meaning, characteristics for certain groups/cultures, etc. (cultural differences in the use of counting gestures) => human gesture for themselves and for receivers => gestures can enter our thoughts and influence communication The comparative approach uses empirical data from living species to draw detailed inferences about abilities of extinct ancestors Primate communication - teaching speech, signs and natural gesturing to apes 4 Teaching speech to apes Speech Attempts: Early attempts to teach speech to apes, such as Gua and Viki, showed limited success due to anatomical constraints. 5 Teaching gestures to apes Sign Language: Successful teaching of sign language to apes like Washoe and Koko demonstrated the flexibility of the gestural domain, although criticisms regarding creativity and ethical treatment arose. J Natural animal gesturing Charles Darwin: Prelinguistic gesturing state of the art: children undergo a gestural phase before they use their first spoken words onset of communicative intentions emergence of symbols social and individual learning referential (refer to outside events/objects) imperative (request an action) and declarative (share attention,etc.) Natural animal gesturing Gesture definition: 1. directed toward a recipient 2. mechanically ineffective 3. have the potential to receive a voluntary response (f.e. change of position) Intentionality 1. Sensitivitiy to the social context: 2. Means-ends dissociation (using several means for a single goal, or one mean for different goals) example: Gesture types Gestural repertoires: multifaceted repertoires mainly unimodal gesture classes: auditory, tactile, visual intentionally signaling Great ape gesturing: Learning: individual and social learning Referentiality and function: - pointing with human caretakers - self-referential gestures - mainly imperative and not declarative =>  03.12.2024, Vocalizations, Dr. Filipa Abreu, CBC 1 Foundations of Vocal communication What is vocal communication? vocal communication = acoustic signals -> sound produced by vocal organs Importance strengthening the relationship within groups attracting mates through specific sounds marking and defending territories alerting to other potential dangers Advantages Long-Distance Reach - Effective over large distances, especially in open environments. Effective in Low Visibility - Works well in darkness, dense habitats, or underwater. Immediate Transmission - Allows for rapid, real-time communication (e.g., alarm calls). Flexible Modulation - Variations in pitch, volume, and tone convey different meanings. Directional Cues - Helps receivers locate the sender, useful in group coordination. 2 Properties of vocal communication 1. Production: sound generation 2. Propagation: sound travels through a medium 3. Reception: the sound is received and interpreted Vocal production in mammals: larynx (voice box) —> vibrating vocal cords, creates sound Vocal production in marine mammals: nasal air sacs (odontoceti) —> air passes through, creating clicks and whistles larynx —> creates lower frequency sounds Vocal production in birds: Syrinx —> produces complex sounds even two different pitches simultaneously Vocal production in amphibian: sound made by larynx amplify by vocal sacs Vocal production in fish: sound produced by vibrations and certain muscles swim bladders Vocal Propagation a. Wavelength: Distance between points in consecutive waves b. Amplitude: Distance between the origin and the crest (up and down) c. Frequency: Number of waves that pass a point in a unit of time d. Velocity: Wavelength multiplicated by the frequency Vocal Propagations - Sound Properties Pitch: frequency of the sound waves, determining whether the sound is perceived as high or low. Volume: loudness of the sound, which depends on the amplitude of the sound waves. Terrain: Dense vegetation or obstacles can block or absorb sound, reducing its range. Temperature and Wind: Temperature layers and wind can either carry sound further or block it. Air vs. Water: Sound travels faster and further in water than in air, which is why marine mammals like whales and dolphins can communicate over vast distances. Vocal Reception- reception of sound involves the capture of sound waves by the sensory organs. Ears: In mammals and many vertebrates, ears detect sound waves, convert them to nerve signals, and send them to the brain. Specialized Receptors: Some animals use alternative receptors (e.g., vibration-sensitive organs) to sense sound or vibrations. UNDERSTANDING A VOCALIZATION AND ITS MEANING INVOLVES MORE THAN DETECTING SOUND  Types of vocalizations and functions : alarm calls produced to alert group members to the presence of potential danger or predators can vary in urgency or type, depending on the threat level or predator type mating calls produced to attract potential mates, typically occurring during mating season signal readiness to reproduce and often carry information about the caller’s health or genetic quality social calls produced to maintain social bonds and group cohesion calls help facilitate social interactions, allowing individuals to stay connected, coordinate activities and reinforce group structure food calls produced to alert others to the presence of food often used in social species to share the location of food resources and bring group members together to feed or to share food with infants territorial calls produced to assert dominance and defend their territory serve as warning to others, indicating that an area is occupied and signaling boundaries to potential rivals Underlying cognitive capacities - cognition and vocal communication Cognition: Cognitive capacities are the mental abilities that influence how animals perceive, produce, and adjust their vocal communication. These capacities enable animals to use vocalizations in different social and environmental contexts. —> For example, memory, learning, and social understanding, enhance vocal communication in animals. Vocal flexibility: Ability to modify the characteristics of vocalizations, such as pitch, volume or tone, and to adjust or change vocalizationsbased on the social or environmental context. Vocal accommodation: Adjustment of vocalizations based on the audience or social context. This ability allows animals to modify aspects of their vocalizations, such as pitch, tone, or rhythm, to enhance social interactions. —> ! Convergent vocal accommodation (i.e., becoming more similar to partners) can also bring the loss of identity. ! Vocal learning: Ability to acquire and modify vocalizations through imitation and practice, often by listening to and replicating the sounds made by others. Dialects: Variations in vocalizations within a species, often shaped by social and environmental factors, leading to distinctive 'regional' patterns among different groups. Can be regional or group-based differences. Enhance group identity and may help animals recognize members of their own group. Vocal turn-taking: Exchange of communicative turns with at least two interlocutors, governed by specific rules (e.g., avoiding overlaps, temporal relations, adjacency pairs). Involves alternating vocalizations rather than overlapping. Intentionality voluntary directed at particular recipients goal-directed Call combination: Vocal combinations involve using multiple calls or sounds in succession to create more complex messages. Context-based sequences of different calls, allowing flexibility and adaptability without rigid structure. Linkage to human language - Animal calls and human language difference: displacement: ability to communicate about things that are not immediately present in time or space productivity: capacity to produce infinite combinations of words to create new capacity to produce infinite combinations of words to create new sentences, phrases, expressions => open-endedness duality of patterning human language is structured into layers: - lower level: phonemes combine into words according to phonological rules - higher level: words combine into clauses according to syntactic rules mental state attribution appears to be a uniquely human trait in communication, allowing humans to inter and respond to the thoughts, beliefs, intentions of others HOWEVER, Animals still exhibit other communication capacities, including call combination, vocal learning, vocal flexibility, and others. These capacities are distributed across various animal species.  10.12.2024, Vocalizations, Jolinde Vlaeyen, CBC Introduction i Face = one of the most important communicative systems over evolutionary time, and convey considerable information Visual communication: conveys information through the visual field dynamic changes in muscle activity of the face not a gesture, own modality group Involuntary: reflective responses driven by emotions and/or Voluntary: consciously controlled Emotions: automatically evaluations shaped by evolution and experience, signaling important events and triggered psychological and behavioral responses Evolutionary Origins 1872: adaptive signals for emotions, inherited across species (Charles Darwin) 1967: seven basic emotions (Paul Ekman) - universal across cultures, hence a biological basis - each emotions (ex.: happiness) —> specific facial expressions (ex.: smile) Anthropomorphism: the (mis)attribution of human-like mental experiences to other species evolution Analogy: similar traits that evolve independently in response to similar pressures Homology: similar traits in different species due to common ancestry (many non-human primate facial expressions are homologies) Anthropodenial: a priori denial that other animals can have human-like mental experiences or that humans are like animals Frans de Waal: Humans share many emotional expressions with other species Failing to recognize these similarities limits our understanding of animal behavior and emotions Ritualization: the process by which behaviors that originally served practical or survival purposes evolved into clear social signals to communicate emotions or intentions (for ex.: disgust face - evolved from a response to reject harmful substances and now communicate aversion) Research Methods 1. Facial Action Coding System (FACS): - individual muscle movements get codes (Action Units, AUs) - objective, anatomically based and systematic method - standardize descriptions of facial expressions ! Crucial to remember that each species has evolved unique ways to express and interpret similar experiences → Rat ultrasonic laughter ! 2. Thermal Imaging: - decrease in nose temperature is often linked ro stress or fear, as it reflects the activation of the sympathetic nervous system Facial expressions in research - Current research Social use of facial expressions in Gibbons - social context - more and longer durations when facing each other (regardless of attentional state) - non-social context => used for communicative interactions with conspecifics Orangutans modify facial displays depending on recipient attention - modifying a signal when a potential recipient is looking -> intent to communicate - orangutans show more intense and complex play faces - not automated response, but flexibly used Flexible use of play faces in orangutans and chimpanzees - Orangutans exposed their upper teeth and pull their mouth corner more towards younger individuals → shows reassurance - Chimpanzees showed both upper and lower teeth exposure more often when interacting with older individuals → shows submissiveness Belugas create facial displays by changing the shape of their melon - occurs much more during social interactions than outside of it  Case Study - the smile 5 Smile and Bared-Teeth display – the most common non-human primate facial expression, homologous to each other. Different but same smiles: Duchenne Smile: - Reflects genuine positive emotion - Activates the parasympathetic nervous system → thus shows real emotional satisfaction Most often used in peer relationships, indicating joy and affiliation Non-Duchenne Smile: - Maintain social harmony, specifically in hierarchy and formal contexts - Research shows that lower-status individuals tend to produce more smiles when interacting with higher-status individuals = > Conclusion:  03.12.2024, Tool use and culture, Dr. Tobias Deschner, MPI for Evolutionary Anthropology Definitions, History : Definition of tool use: “ the use of an object to alter the form, position, or condition of another object, another organism, or the user itself when the user holds or carries the tool during or just prior to use “ (Beck,1980) Evolution of tool use in humans The Oldowan Toolkit (2.6 million years ago): - Hammerstones that show battering on their surfaces - Stone cores that show a series of flake scars along one or more edges - Sharp stone flakes struck from the cores, providing cutting edges and debris from percussion flaking Middle Stone Age Toolkit (400,000 to 200,000 years ago): - Points hafted onto shafts to make spears - Stone awls used to perforate hides - Scrapers useful for preparing hide, wood, and other material Later Stone Age Toolkit (Stronger cultural diversity): - Burins: Sharp flakes used to carve bone, antler, ivory, and surfaces (Laugerie Haute & Bass, Dordogne, France; Age: 17,000 - 11,500 years ago) - Bone needles (Xiaogushan, Liaoning Province, China; Age: 30,000 - 23,000 years ago) - Harpoon Point (Katanda, Democratic Republic of Congo; Age: 90,000 - 80,000 years ago) The problem with dating the evolution of tool use Tool usage evidence relies on artifacts with identifiable traces. Most examples so far involve modified tools. A solution to understanding early tool use involves analyzing traces left behind on artifacts. In 2010, bones from the Afar region of Ethiopia showed cut marks and percussion damage, indicating stone tool use. These bones are approximately 3.4 million years old and provide evidence that Australopithecus afarensis used tools to process meat Tool use in humans is at least 3.4 million years old. Discovery of tool use in animals for decades, tool use was considered one of the defining features of humans modern makers were described as “homo faber” (Man the Maker) meaning that human beings are able to control their environment as a result of the use of tools “ Now we must redefine tool, redefine man, or accept chimpanzees as humans.” (Lous Leakey) Distribution of tool use in (9) animals = sea urchins, insects, spiders, crabs, snails, octopi, fish, birds and mammals) as containing tool-using species Cognitive aspects of tool-use Understanding of causality? Stereotyped tool use Flexible tool use same tool for different purpose different tools for same purpose —> Dissociation between action and purpose Physical reasoning: Understanding of physical properties of objects used for different tasks of the tool use activity (example: Chimpanzees opening arboreal bee nests Planning: The fascination with Oldowan tool industry in the early stone age was so big among paleontologists because these tools were the first proof of planning in human evolution Other species show planning as well, particularly chimpanzee Complexity of tool use simple to use combined tool use sequential tool use Why is tool use rare in animals? Hypotheses: 1. Lack of cognitive abilities 2. Necessity of preexisting behavior (for stereotyped tool use) 3. Lack of utility -> Complicated 4 Tool use in chimpanzees Wild chimpanzee distribution, variation in tool use behavior, distribution of chimpanzee nut cracking Why don’t all chimps crack nuts? Hypotheses: 1. Chimpanzee nut cracking is a behavior easily invented but only shown there where chimps are interested eating nuts, if they don’t like them why should they eat them? (Tennie et al. 2009) 2. Chimpanzee nut cracking is a product of cumulative culture, including social learning and therefore very rarely invented and transmitted (e.g., Koops et al. 2022)  07.01.2025, Spatial Cognition, Dr. Filipa Abreu Concepts : animal cognition: refers to the mental capacities of non-human animals, encompassing the processes by which they acquire, process, storage, and act on information from their environment perception, learning, memory, problem-solving, decision-making, communication, and social behaviors spatial cognition: related to the acquisition, organization, and use of spatial information from the external environment helps humans to find a way plays a vital role in the survival of animals, helping them remember food sources, recognize predators, and navigate their environment cognitive processes allow animals to learn from experiences and make adaptive decisions based on previously acquired information Spatial learning,memory and spatial perception 1. Memory information is acquired, stored and later retrieved what needed allows individuals to retain knowledge, learn from experiences and apply past information to new situations short-term memory and long-term memory the hippocampus involves the ability to remember locations, navigate in the environment and helps the spatial orientation place cells are specialized neurons located in the hippocampus that activate when an animal is in a specific location within its environment each place cell corresponds to a particular location, firing in response to the animal’s position => create a network that represents the animals network 2. Spatial Learning: process of acquiring knowledge about the spatial environment, particular, the location, arrangement, and relationships between objects or places involves actively learning and encoding spatial information focuses on acquisition of special knowledge , which is then stored in special memory for later use 3. Spatial Perception ability to perceive, and understand the spatial properties of objects in the environment, including the location, distance, and movement, and relationship to oneself or two other objects in space it involves processing sensory information, such as visual, auditory, and tactile inputs to form an accurate or presentation of the physical world Allocentric: Environment-based; focuses on relationships between objects in the environment. Egocentric: Self-based; focuses on the observer's position and direction relative to objects. Klatzky (1998) highlighted their distinctions and interconnections. External and internal influences on spatial capacities external: Quantity, Quality, Type of food (preferences) internal: Experiences/Familiarity, Cultural or Social Factors,… … Age - young: late development of brain functions related to spatial cognition - adults: greater cognition compared to others - old: increased hippocampal dysfunctions impact spacial cognition … Sex - males: prefer geometric - females: prefer landmarks Evolutionary Hypothesis: Cognitive abilities developed as adaptations to environmental challenges. Hormonal Influence: Hormones like testosterone can affect spatial abilities. Diversion Hypothesis: Spatial abilities may vary by gender or role (e.g., hunting versus defense). 4 Spatial navigation and navigation strategies 1. Spatial Scales in Navigation: Small-scale space: Navigation within a local or confined area (e.g., finding objects in a room or specific locations within a territory). Large-scale space: Navigation over broader distances (e.g., migration or long-range travel). 2. Navigation Strategies: Path Integration (Dead Reckoning): Using internal cues (e.g., steps taken, speed) to estimate position relative to a starting point. Landmark Use: Relying on fixed physical cues (e.g., trees, rocks) in the environment to guide navigation. 3. Orientation Mechanisms: Sun Compass: Using the sun's position to orient direction. Effective when paired with an internal clock to account for its movement. Star Compass: Orienting using celestial constellations, common in nocturnal or migratory species. Earth's Magnetic Field: Detecting magnetic field lines to determine direction, especially in species like birds, turtles, and some insects. Olfactory Compass: Using smells as directional cues, often in animals with strong olfactory senses like ants or mammals. 5 Cognitive mapping 1. Cognitive Mapping: The process of creating mental representations of spatial environments to navigate and make decisions. 2. Types of Maps: - Mental Maps: Internal, subjective maps based on personal experience. Include landmarks, paths, and regions but may be distorted by perception. - Route-Based Maps: Sequential, step-by-step navigation using landmarks or directions. Linear and action-focused (e.g., 'Turn left at the tree'). - Coordinate-Based Maps Use of a grid or coordinate system (e.g., GPS or magnetic fields). Provides a flexible, bird's-eye view for efficient navigation. 3. Applications: Humans: Combine all three map types depending on the environment or task. Animals: - Route-based maps in ants and small mammals. - Coordinate-based maps in migratory birds and sea turtles. - Mental maps in primates and elephants. 4. Importance: Essential for survival (e.g., finding food, avoiding predators). Enables efficient navigation, including shortcuts. Basis for modern tools like GPS and AI navigation.  14.01.2025, Theory of Mind, Dr. Leonardo Chaves 1 Cognition Ecological Brain Hypothesis: Brain expansion in animals, including humans, was driven by ecological factors. Social Brain Hypothesis: Brain size in primates evolved primarily to manage social complexities, not just ecological challenges. Manipulation "Many of visible features of animals, many of their behavior patterns, many chemical substances and most of the sounds given off by them, are best interpreted as being adapted to influence the behavior of other animals." MACHIAVELLIAN INTELLIGENCE - The cognitive and behavioral capacity of an individual to navigate complex social environments through tactics such as social manipulation, deceit, cunning co-operation and prediction of others' intentions The best tool may be another animal plants 2 Mind reading a) showing aggressive behavior —> b) attack, give up, run away ??? b) the optimal choice will depend on the probable consequences that would follow for each choice a) the consequences will depend on the future behavior of other animals !Warning: potential Bluffing! individuals of the species Nannacara anomala canlearn how to use the behaviour that they saw from other individuals (f.e. Nann Theory of Mind: "The ability of an individual to attribute mental states to oneself and others, including states such as beliefs, intentions, desires, knowledge, or emotions." Sally-Anne Test: 3 Deception animal deception - deception: Animals transmit misinformation to create false beliefs in others, benefiting themselves at the receiver's cost. - behavioral deception: Actions mislead others to respond incorrectly, like the piping plover feigning injury to distract predators from its nest. levels of deception: 1. deprivation of information (crypsis) 2. dishonest signaling (mimicry) 3. distraction displays (first order) 4 Human Cognition - shy are humans so smart? humans are an “ultra-social” species - advanced social learning skills, cumulative transmission of knowledge, ability to work in large, organized groups, symbolic communication, social norms and morality