IR Guide PDF 2022 Edition - JNU, JAMIA, UGC-NET

IR GUIDE 2022 EDITION IR ENTRANCE TESTS-JNU JAMIA, OTHER PG ETs, UGC-NET POLITICAL SCIENCE Fact Sheets covering entire UG Political science CBCS syllabus Extensive coverage of IR GK...

IR GUIDE 2022 EDITION IR ENTRANCE TESTS-JNU JAMIA, OTHER PG ETs, UGC-NET POLITICAL SCIENCE Fact Sheets covering entire UG Political science CBCS syllabus Extensive coverage of IR GK 5 sets of Sample Papers with Answers and additional Information PDF of PYQ Analysis- JNU PISM/IRAM, JMI IR, Puducherry IR By the Author of POL SC HELP  DEAR STUDENTS…WELCOME BACK! This guide is updated version of 2021 exam guide for entrance tests. It includes all the information, updated, as in 2021 guide. In addition, it includes 2 additional contents 1. extensive facts and information on IR GK and Trivia 2. Key information on Political Geography, History, Economics, and Sociology to make it IR exam guide for Entrance tests and Competitive exams. The guide is equally helpful for all other competitive exams including UGC-NET. Hope it would be one of the unique help materials for competitive exams with objective questions. What it contains? Arranged in five Sections: Section 1: More than 70 theme wise fact sheets, in tabular form, containing key facts & information covering the entire 3-year UG CBCS syllabus in Political Science. More than 25 fact sheets for IR GK and Trivia. Section 2 and 3: 5 sets of sample question papers, of 70 MCQ each, with Answer Hints and additional information o MCQs selected after analysing past year papers of JNU PISM/IRAM, Jamia IR ET, Puducherry IR PG ET, and UGC-Net Section 4: Tips and tricks to prepare for and tackle MCQs. Section 5: PDF of all Pol Sc Help Videos analysing PYQs of JNU PISM/IRAM, JMI MA IR, and Puducherry MA IR How to use the Guide for the best results? Read carefully all the key points given in tabular form at least 4-5 times Watch the related Pol Sc Help videos for more information related to key points given in the fact sheets. Highlight the most important information, in your view, and revise them on daily basis; at least 10-12 times before the exam. Make a mental map of information; for example: thinkers who gave security theory- Robert Jervis, Karl Deutsch, Barry Buzan, etc.; Headquarters of important IGOs, venue and date of their latest meetings, and so on. Try the MCQ sample paper in exam mode- in one go, within 2 hour, without seeing answers or searching google; assess your performance, identify knowledge gap and try to plug them. Make multiple MCQs from one MCQ. Note: I have purposely included many MCQs on matching types, from each of them make 3-4 MCQs. From the Answer hints also additional MCQs can be made. Most importantly, be positive, enjoy the process, and smile. GOOD WISHES! 2  INDEX (WHERE IS WHAT?) Political Theory & Concepts 5 IR Theory & Concepts 16 IR Books/Authors 34 IR Events, treaties 50 UN, IMF, World Bank, WTO 86 IGOs and Regional Organisations 105 More IR GK & Trivia 116 Political Geography, History, Economics, 132 Sociology Indian Constitution 157 Indian Polity 180 Comparative Politics 207 Public Admin 212 Western Political Thought 224 Indian Political Thought 263 5 Sets of Sample papers 278 Answer key with Addl. Info 391 Tips & Tricks to crack MCQs 416 3 THEME WISE FACT SHEETS 4  SECTION 1 FACT SHEETS: POLITICAL CONCEPTS & THEORY 5 FACT SHEET 1: DEFINITIONS OF POLITICAL CONCEPTS Concept/Term Different definitions Politics Politics is the art of the possible- Otto Von Bismarck Politics is about who gets what, when and how- Harold Lasswell Politics as capacity of acting in concert- Hannah Arendt Politics as authoritative allocation of value - David Easton politics is an ethical activity concerned with creating a ‘just society’ and ensuring ‘good Life’ of the community- Aristotle Politics is power-structured relationships, arrangements whereby one group of persons is controlled by another- Kate Millet Politics is about ‘attending to the general arrangements of a set of people whom chance or choice have brought together’- Oakeshott How Andrew Haywood defined Politics? Politics as that which concerns the state Politics is conduct of public Life Politics is conflict resolution in public domain Politics as conflict (among differing interests) in public domain Power A has power over B to the extent that A can get B to do something which B would not have done otherwise- Robert Dahl Power is to politics as money is to economy; Like money, power also circulates in society- Talcott Parsons Power as creating action in group by communication to realize the public realm - Hanah Arendt ‘Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely’- Lord Acton Power as normalization and subjection through governable identities- Foucault Power as Cultural Hegemony- Antonio Gramsci Power as structural arrangement in which perceptions of people are shaped to perpetuate domination without any observable conflict- Steven Lukes 6  Extractive vs Developmental Power; Extractive power- Power over, power to get other do something; Developmental Power- ability to fulfils one’s own self-appointed goals- C.B. MacPherson Justice Justice as harmony of soul and each individual and class performing its duty to best of their abilities and aptitudes- Plato Justice as 'fairness’ in distribution of income, wealth, rewards, honours, political offices, punishments etc , based on the principle of equity- proportional and arithmetic equality- Aristotle Justice as Fairness in distribution of resources, awards, honours, and political offices- John Rawl Entitlement Theory of Justice: distribution of holdings in a society is just if everyone in that society is entitled to what he has- Robert Nozick Justice by practical reasoning; justice as fair procedure (Niti) vs justice realized (Nyaya)- Amartya Sen Justice as perfect obligation- J.S.Mill Rights A person has a right to X when if and only if others have moral obligation to provide or allow him/her X- Immanuel Kant Rights are entitlements to act or be treated in a particular way- Andrew Heywood One man’s capacity of influencing the act of others, not by his own strength but by the strength of the society – Holland A right is a claim recognized by society and enforced by the state- Bosanquet Rights are those conditions of social life without which no man can seek, in general, to be himself at his best- Harold Laski Rights are what we may expect from others and others from us, and all genuine rights are conditions of social welfare- Hobhouse A person has a right to X when his or her interest in X is sufficiently important for others to have duty to provide or allow him/her X- Interest based theory of Rights Liberty/Freedom Freedom is obeying laws reflecting general will of the political community- Rousseau 7 It is a positive power of doing or enjoying something worth doing or enjoying – Moral Freedom ( T.H.Green) A free man, is he, that in those things, which by his strength and wit he is able to, is not hindered to do what he has a will to- Hobbes freedom is state in which man is not subject to coercion by arbitrary will of others- Fredrich Hayek Man is free to act without subject to arbitrary will of another within allowance of moral law- John Locke 8  FACT SHEET 2: MAJOR POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES Ideologies Core Theme and Features Main Thinkers Liberalism Individual autonomy, Classical vs Classical: Individualism modern Locke, Hobbes, Prefer ‘Rights’ over ‘Common liberalism Aadam Smith, Good’: Moral primacy of Classical- Thomas Paine claim of individual against minimal state, Modern: John claims of society/state Inviolable Rawl, Inviolable natural rights of property rights, T.H.Green, Life, Liberty, Property universalism Laski, Dworkin, Hobhouse, Melioristic: social institutions Modern: Welfare R.H.Tawany, and political arrangements can state, distributive justice, G.D.H Cole, be improved J.S.Mill, multiculturalism Tolerance, multi-culturalism Bentham Modern Liberalism also Libertarian- called Positive Robert Nozick, liberalism. Fredrich Hayek, Milton Friedman Libertarianism- revival of classical liberalism- neo- liberalism Marxism Analyse political phenomenon Multiple strands Classical: from class lens Classical Lenin, Mao Historical Materialism: Marxism Zedong, Rosa Changes in economic base Luxemburg, Neo-Marxism Alexandra (mode of production) of society brings about changes Neo-classical Kollontai, in its socio-political-cultural Critical Theories M.N.Roy (superstructure); civilization Gramscianism Neo- Marxist: progresses through this Louis Althusser, dialectical process Justin Perpetual class struggle- Rosenberg, exploited vs exploiter; change Immanuel in mode of production Wallerstein, changes the class Andre Gunder characteristics Frank 9  master/slave, lord/serf, Neo-classical capitalist/labour Marxism- Capitalist system is Gerald A. exploitive, keep surplus Cohen, Adam labour as profit, alienate Przeworski, workers, and faces regular John E. Roemer crisis and Erik Olin Wright Vision of state less, class less, property less communist Gramscianism : society Ernesto Laclau , Robert W. Cox , ‘From each according to his Chantal Mouffe ability, to each according to his needs’- in final stage of Critical Communism Theory- Frankfurt school thinkers- though they are critical of both Marxism and Liberalism Conservatism Preserving ideas, institutions Branch of David Hume and socio-cultural traditions. classical Edmund Burke Belief in Hierarchy, order, and liberalism Hobbes authority In economy- conservatives are Locke Society as organic entity- has evolved over centuries of quite liberal Michael social But conservative Oakeshott customs/practices/traditions in socio-cultural Joseph de State required for social order domain Maistre Only gradual and calibrated More popular and Metternich change in social electorally Benjamin practices/traditions successful than Disraeli liberal parties Pragmatism- Truth lies in Contemporary concrete experience than support right times- Quintin moral preposition wing ideology Hogg, Margret …prefer the familiar to the Thatcher, unknown, to prefer the tried to Angela Merkel, the untried, fact to mystery, Marine Le Pen, the actual to the possible, the Ronald Reagon limited to the unbounded, the near to the distant…( about conservativism by Oakeshott) 10 Post- No objective truth, against the Post-structuralism Richar Asley modernism Binary ( good vs bad) De- Jenny Adkins, All knowledge is subjective constructivism Foucault (Post- Knowledge is not simply a Critical theory structuralism) cognitive factor, it is also Subjectivity Derrida (De- normative and political constructivism) Truth is Power & knowledge linked subjective, Lyotard( refuted and create each other depends on the meta-narrative) Reality socially constructed perspective of the Baudrillard Does not believes in meta subject(observer) Nietzsche narratives (grand Timeline- (Nihilism) narrative/story) beginning 1970s Richard Rorty Critical of classical liberalism, and positivism, superiority of Fredric Jameson science, modernity discourse Emmanuel Lévinas Anarchism Against any form of formal, Utopic ideologies William external, and hierarchical Stateless, Godwin- authority in managing socio- authority less Philosophical political arrangements blissful social life Anarchism Organisation of society on a Gandhiji- Pierre-Joseph voluntary cooperative basis enlightened Proudhon - without force/coercion Anarchism Mutualism Belief in virtuous(good) Mikhail human nature, which can Bakunin manage both individual & revolutionary social life without any Anarchist external formal authority Leo Tolstoy- State is unnecessary evil Pacificist Accept authority of experts Anarchist and moral authority of Gandhiji- collective decision enlightened Anarchism Feminism Given in separate fact sheet. 11 FACT SHEET 3: APPROACHES TO POLITICAL THEORY Approaches Important facts/meaning Main thinkers/activists- their contributions Normative Also called philosophical approach Plato- Ideal State Approach Raises normative question- ‘Why Saint Augustine- ‘City of should I obey the state?’, ‘How should God’ rewards be distributed?’ and ‘What Thomas Aquinas- 5 proof of should the limits of individual freedom existence of God be’? ‘How good life of community be ensured?’ John Rwal- Normative theory of Justice as fairness Focus: moral, ethical, just political arrangements Robert Nozick- Entitlement theory of Justice what ‘should be’ rather than what ‘is’ Leo Strauss: brought value Value loaded, prescriptive, political back in Political theory philosophy Hanah Arendt Macheal Sandel- Communitarian T.H.Green- moral freedom Charles Taylor- Communitarian Empirical Analyse and describe political Aristotle- 1st empirical Approach phenomenon ‘as it is’, factual analysis of Constitutions Uses methods of scientific observation, Auguste Comte- father of quantitative analysis, testable Positivism and inventor of hypothesis the term sociology 2 pillars: Behaviouralism and Logical David Easton- father of Positivism empirical approach- gave Objective, factual, value-free, scientific system theory Attempt to build scientific political Karl Popper- scientific theory (science of politics) theory are falsifiable Robert Dahl- Pluralist thinker Seymour Lipset Gabrieal Almond- structural-functional approach 12  Jean Blondel Peter Laslett( declared death of normative political theory) Historical Uses history as genetic process of Karl Marx- Historical Approach: evolution of political phenomena. Materialism History used as vast repository of test Hegel: historical idealism cases to be used to theorizing for Machiavelli- used this present and future. approach in ‘the Prince’ Studying past to understand the causes Skocpol- ‘States and Social of political phenomenon in present. Revolutions: a Comparative more weightage to individual human Analysis of France, Russia agency than societal structure and and China’ institutions- prefer actor over structure Ram Manohar Lohia – ‘Wheels of History’ Vivekanand- ‘Cycle of Caste rule’ Oakeshott- ‘What Is History?’ Critical Critical of the mainstream thinking and All post-modernist thinkers- Approach theories Foucault, Derrida, Lyotard, Want to overturn existing socio- Baudrillard, Nietzsche political arrangements/structures. All thinkers of Frankfurt Include radical feminism, green School (Neo-Marxism): politics, constructivism, post- Ernst Bloch, Walter structuralism, deconstructivism and Benjamin, Max postcolonialism, neo-Marxism, etc. Horkheimer, Erich Fromm, Herbert Marcuse, Habermas Adopt post-positivist approaches, discourse analysis, and deconstruction All radical feminists- Kate Millet, Rebecca Walker, Align itself with sub-altern, Eve Ensler, Shulamith marginalized and oppressed groups Firestone, etc. Reveal inequalities, injustice, and Post-colonial and asymmetries that mainstream Dependency school approaches intend to ignore thinkers- Samir Amin, Edward said, Andre Gunder Frank 13  FACT SHEET 4: FEMINISM- IN MULTIPLE WAVES Feminist Important facts Main thinkers/activists- wave their contributions 1st wave Also called Liberal Feminism Marry Wollstonecraft: Timeline: 19th & early 20th century ‘Vindication of the rights of women- 1792’ It demanded Equal rights for women in public sphere/political Fanny (Frances) Wright Focus- education, job, equal pay, voting rights, J.S.Mills: ‘Subjugation property rights, legal rights, equality in of women-1869’ marriage, family, society Harriet Taylor- wife of J.S.Mill Raja Ram Mohan Roy Pandita Ramabai- ‘the high caste Hindu women’- 1887 2nd Wave Also called Radical Feminism Simone de Beauvoir: Timeline: 1960s-70s ‘the second sex’ – women are not born but Questioned socially constructed gender made-1949 notions of masculinity and femininity, patriarchy, and reproductive role Shulamith Firestone: ‘The Dialectic of sex- Reshape society and restructure its institutions 1970’ Slogan- ‘Personal is political’; ‘women are Kate Millet: ‘Sexual made, not born’ politics-1971’ Universal sisterhood, included black/coloured Germaine Greer- ‘The women Female Eunuch’-1972 3rd May be called post-modern feminism, eco- Rebecca Walker- Wave feminism, transfeminism, etc. ‘Becoming the Third Timeline: 1990s-2010 Wave’ Demanded freedom to control their bodies and Eve Ensler- ‘Vagina their lives Monologues’ Intersectionality- women experience "layers of Amy Richards- ‘Opting oppression" – caste, class, colour, gender, race In’ 14  Fighting classism, racism, sexism by Naomi Wolf- ‘The overturning the notions of gender, race, class, Beauty Myth’. and structure & symbols supporting them. Susan Faludi- Raised issues of violence against women, ‘Backlash’ women's reproductive rights, sexual liberation, Germaine Greer-‘The derogatory terms for women, transgender Whole Woman’ rights, etc. Carol Ann Duffy- ‘The World's Wife’ 4th Wave Timeline- since 2012 Rebecca Solnit- ‘Men Focus: focus on empowerment of women, Explain Things to Me against sexual harassment, body shaming, and (2014)’ rape culture, etc. Jessica Valenti- ‘Sex Use of social media Object: A Memoir (2016)’ Me Too movement Laura Bates- ‘Everyday Sexism (2016)’ Marxist Class and private property, and not gender Friedrich Engles: ‘the or discrimination, are the main issues origin of family, private Socialist Consider mainstream feminism as capitalist or property, and state- Feminism Bourgeoise feminism- limited to white women 1884’ Alexandra Kollontai- ‘Sexual relation and the class struggle’ Sheila Rawbatham: ‘Women, resistance, revolution and hidden form of history-1943’ Martha Nussbaum-‘Sex and Social Justice’ 15  FACT SHEETS: IR THEORIES & CONCEPTS 16  FACT SHEET 1 : IR THEORIES 1A: REALISM: REALIST APPROCAH TO IR Themes/components Facts/features Core Themes National Interest defined in terms of Power is the bases of IR and Global politics Interest and power are signposts of politics Statism: States are the main actors in IR International state system is Anarchic- absence of any world Govt. Each state is to survive by self-help No Idealism, universal morality, benevolence, altruism in IR Each nation can do anything to protect its national interest, only limitation is the relative power and capabilities Politics is autonomous of universal moral principles. Politics has its own rules of morality. Nations while protecting their national interests are not bound by universal moral precepts. Features 3 ‘S’ : Statism, Survival, Self-Help Statism: States are main actors of IR Survival and Self-Help: International state system is anarchic; hence self-help is only way for survival of state Great variation in relative powers of the states Balance of Power: In absence of world govt for survival Power must be balanced by power. States are defined as rational actors, pursuing their interests rather than being agents of morality. Interests rather than national morality guides actions of states in global world order. State pursue goal of ‘security maximization’ or ‘power maximization’ for its survival Security Dilemma( coined by John Herz) : lack of trust- each state increasing its capabilities/power- end result heightened tension, no increase in security 17 Classical Realism Hans Morgenthau is father of Classical Realism Gave 6 principles of Realism in his book ‘Politics among nation(1948)’ Based on human nature: competitive and egoistic human nature as base of realist approach Behaviours of States matches human behaviour Interest and power are signposts of politics Politics has its own standard of morality. National interest, and Not national morality, decides foreign policy Other thinkers: Thucydides, Thomas Hobbes, E.H. Carr, Arnold Wolfers Neo Realism Propounded by Kenneth Waltz in his book ‘Theory of International Politics(1979)’ Instead of human nature its bases its theory on Anarchic Structure of International state system and great variation in relative powers and capabilities of states. Also called structural realism States aim security, power is means to attain security Hence, States are security maximiser Offensive Vs Defensive Offensive: State are power maximiser Neo Realism States try to achieve security through domination and hegemony o John Mearsheimer-chief proponent Defensive: States are security maximiser, for them power is only means to achieve security goal. States maintain moderate and reserved policies to attain security Structural modifiers- security dilemma, geography, elite beliefs and perceptions o Kenneth Waltz, Robert Jervis, John Herz, Stephen Walt, Jack Snyder Main Thinkers- Thucydides: Father of Realism; His ’Melian Classical Realism dialogue’(on Peloponnesian War- between Athens & Sparta) is regarded as a classic realist account. Machiavelli : His ‘Prince’ a classic in Realism 18  Thomas Hobbes: His ‘Leviathan’ is realist in approach Hans Morgenthau: Father of IR; ‘Politics Among Nations’ (1948)- gave 6 principles of Classical Realism Interest & Power Flag post/placard of Politics Interest defined in terms of power- bases of IR Politics separate from morality E. H. Carr : ‘The Twenty Years' Crisis’ (1939) Main Thinkers- Neo- Kenneth Waltz: Father of Neo-Realism Realism wrote ‘Man, the State, and War’,( 1959) ‘Theory of International Politics’ (1979)- this book gave birth to Neo-realism John Mearsheimer: Offensive Neo-realism; “The Tragedy of Great Power” (2001) Robert Kaplan: ‘’The Coming Anarchy ”(paper articles), Asia's Cauldron; pioneer in system approach in IR Robert Jervis : Perception and Misperception in International Politics Reinhold Niebuhr : Christian realism ; ‘Moral Man and Immoral Society’(1932), ‘Nature and destiny of Man’(19390 19  FACT SHEET 1.B: LIBERALISM: LIBERAL APPROACH TO IR Themes/components Facts/features Core Themes Taking human nature as positive (rational, co-operative, tolerant), it focusses more on co-operation, interdependence, international institutions, etc. in IR National Interests are varied, multi-dimensional, cannot be solely defined in terms of power States are main but not the sole actor NGOs, MNCs, International Institutions, cobweb of people/groups linked through multiple channels of interactions Free trade, free flow of capital, modernisation, globalisation, democracy, people to people contact and cooperation, international regime and institutions, shall bound/integrate nations towards cooperation and interdependence Vision of less conflictual and more peaceful and progressive world joined by common interests and bound by interdependence and integration. Features Liberalism and realism are two contending mainstream theories in IR Deals with ‘Low politics’ Issues- Economic, Social, ecological, technological (High politics- National security, War, Diplomacy- dealt in by realism) Idealism- Belief in moral values, cosmopolitanism, progress, peace, Institutions Closely linked to liberal democracy- free market capitalist economy, Democratic welfare state- and Liberalisation, Privatisation, Globalisation (LPG) 2 variations: Classical and Neo-Liberalism Neo-liberalism has gone too close to neo-realism in ideology Neo Liberalism Less idealistic, more pragmatic Primacy of state, power politics, anarchic world order but belief in Institutions to facilitate peace and cooperation 20  States are rational actor, seeking to maximize their interests- which are varied- in the anarchic world order In cooperative venture, states are concerned with absolute gains, not relative gains, but concerned about cheating State may shift loyalty and resources to institutions if they are mutually beneficial and fulfil interests of the state Obstacle to cooperation: areas of no common interest (zero sum game), cheating- no compliance by others, International regimes and institutions help govern a competitive and anarchic world system Democratic peace Liberal belief that democracies often avoid going to wars theory due to people’s pressure Given first by Immanuel Kant (‘Perpetual Peace’) Democratic Peace Theory: Michael W. Doyle Complex Given by Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye Interdependence theory Multiple and layered channel of interconnections: Inter- state, trans governmental, and transnational Absence of Hierarchy among Issues: overlapping issues- no primacy to security/military issue Minor role of Military force in resolving conflicts in globalized world It has become core principle of neo-liberalism. It is half way between realism and liberalism, between power politics and cooperation, between high and low politics. Main Thinkers Classical: Immanuel Kant: gave ‘Perpetual Peace’ Theory Thomas Paine: wrote ‘Rights of Man(1791)’ Jeremy Bentham: Father of utilitarianism Woodrow Wilson: 14 point - statement of principles for peace Neo-Liberalism Democratic Peace; Security Community Michael W. Doyle- ‘’Democratic Peace’’, ‘’Liberalism and World Politics’’ 21  Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye: Complex Interdependence Theory- ‘Power and Interdependence’ David Mitrany- Functional integration theory-‘ The Functional Theory of Politics(1975)’ 22  1.C: THE NEO-NEO DEBATE Comparison Item Neo-realism Neo-Liberalism Both agree on Anarchic structure and great variations in state capabilities of the international state system Both agree on central role of States in IR States are rational actors; they try to maximize their national interest They Differ on Motives for Relative Gains- belief in IR Absolute gains- both sides may win cooperation within the as ‘Zero Sum Game’- you international system lose, I gain and vice-versa Efficacies of Doubt their effectiveness in They admit chances of ‘cheating’ International moderating or influencing and ‘free-ride’ in cooperation Institutional Regimes state behaviours through institutional mechanism. But believe that states as members of International Institutions and regimes moderate their behaviours and actions institutions also facilitate cooperation in the realm of security 23  FACT SHEET 1.D: MARXISM: MARXIST APPROACH TO IR Themes/components Facts/features Meaning- Core Theme Viewing and analysing IR from class lens. Based on Marxist theory of state- state acting to protect and further the interests of dominant class Class, and not states are the main actor in IR IR is not interplay of Interest and power but reflection of global mode of production and resulting relation of production among states- global economic structure determine global politics International system is capitalist world order whose structure and dynamics further the interest of dominant class Colonialism and imperialism were process of capitalist expansion; Globalization is nothing but global expansion of capitalism- new capitalist imperialism Dominant class/state not only use force but also its hegemony to make their ideas, ideologies, worldviews as mainstream and commonly accepted by subordinate class/states- soft power or cultural hegemony Features A kind of critical theory. Present a 3rd way, different from mainstream Realism and Liberalism Multiple Strands World System and Dependency Theory Hegemony of Gramsci Neo-Marxism Critical Theories- The Frankfurt School World System Theory Given by Immanuel Wallerstein Structure of global state system – Core, periphery, and semi- periphery areas; 24  Core: developed capitalist states; Periphery: poor state working as satellite of core- exploited by core Closely linked to theory of imperialism and dependency theory Dominant class in core in alliance with dominant class in periphery exploit masses/labour class in periphery. Dependency Theory Given by Raúl Prebisch, Fernando Henrique Cardoso, and Andre Gunder Frank Seemingly developed regions within an underdeveloped nation are satellites of the ‘Core’ These satellites further develop their own satellites in the hinterland of the periphery Hierarchical satellite structure Such development is not autonomous, self- generating, sustainable, and equitable. Actually, it is development of underdevelopment( A.G. Frank)! Hegemony by Gramsci Antonio Gramsci’s concept of ‘Hegemony’ in his ‘Prison Notebook’(1971) Hegemony- 3rd dimension of power –manufactured consent- moral, political, cultural values/ideas of dominant class accepted as ;normal and ‘common sense’ by subordinate/exploited class Hegemony is created and maintained by civil society and network of institutions- media, educational system, NGOs, etc. in the ‘Superstructure’ Through Hegemony, dominant class maintain its dominance in the ‘Base’ without use of coercion/violence In IR, hegemony manifest in dominant capitalist power/state controlling global superstructure – internet, financial market, global trade- and manufacturing consent on prevailing moral, political, cultural values/ideas- dress, food, entertainment, Leisure, worldview, etc. Great Debate in Marxist Structuralist vs Instrumental view of Capitalist State IR- Miliband–Poulantzas Miliband: Capitalist state works to serve the interest debate of the capitalist class- instrumental view of state 25  Nicos Poulantzas: Instead of serving the interest of capitalist class, the state reproduces the social structure which perpetuates capitalism- structural view of the state Main Thinkers Classical: Lenin, Stalin, Mao Zedong, Louis Althusser, Karl Kautsky World system theory & Dependency theory: Immanuel Wallerstein, Raúl Prebisch, Fernando Henrique Cardoso, Andre Gunder Frank Gramscianism: Antonio Gramsci, Robert Cox Neo-Marxism: Justin Rosenberg, Immanuel Wallerstein, Samir Amin, AG Frank Analytical Marxism: G. A. Cohen, Jon Elster, John Roemer, Erik Olin Wright, Adam Przeworski Frankfurt School: Herbert Marcuse, Jurgen Habermas, Andrew Linklater Marxist Feminist: Rosa Luxemburg, Alexandra Kollontai 26  FACT SHEET 1.E: FEMINIST APPROACH TO IR Themes/components Facts/features Core Themes Viewing and analysing IR from Gender lens. Theory and practices of IR are guided by Masculine world view National interest defined in terms of power, power defined as domination, security defined as having maximum power Competition for power, war, exploitation States are Power seeking, rational and amoral entity International processes are not gender-neutral, and gender relation are not insulated from international factors. Personal is International all aspects of IR are related to gendered relation in family/society– war, security, power, Interest, foreign policy Question invisibility and marginalization of women in IR- where are the women? ‘Militarization’, overemphasis on brute power, war, conflict, interests further push women to the margin of IR Redefining concepts and components of IR from feminist perspective will make world more peaceful, interconnected, co-operative, moral, and less exploitative, unequal, conflictual Features A kind of critical theory. Reveal the gendered aspect of IR Multiple Strand Liberal Feminism Radical Feminism Marxist Feminism 3rd World Feminism Eco-feminism 27 Main Thinkers Liberal: Marry Wollstonecraft (‘’vindication of the rights of women’’) J.S.Mill- ‘Subjection of Women’ Raja Ram Mohan Roy Radical: Simone de Beauvoir- ‘the second sex’ Marxist: Rosa Luxemburg, Alexandra Kollontai Prominent IR feminists: Judith Ann Tickner: Most influential feminist in IR She re-formulated Morgenthau’s 6 principles of IR from feminist perspective Her famous books: ‘Feminism and International Relations’; ‘Gender in international relations’ Cynthia Enloe: Where is women in International Relation? Her books: ‘Bananas Beaches and Bases’; ‘personal is international’ Carol Cohn : Her books : ‘Women and Wars’ Laura Sjoberg: “Gendering Global Conflict: Toward a Feminist Theory of War ” 28  FACT SHEET 1.F: CONSTRUCTIVISM IN IR Themes/components Facts/features Core Themes Core aspects of IR, such as Anarchism, Power politics, institutionalism, etc., are socially constructed, that is, they are given their form by ongoing processes of social practice and interaction. Thus, instead of human nature or structure of state system, it bases its theory on social construction of ideas and concepts related to IR. For Constructivists, features and events of IR are matter of interpretation rather than explanation. Constructivists cut both neo-realism and neo-liberalism citing them as too much materialistic. Rather it gives more weightage to ideas, which are socially constructed. Core them “structures of human association are determined primarily by shared ideas rather than material forces, and that the identities and interests of purposive actors are constructed by these shared ideas rather than given by nature” (given by Alexander Wendt) Social Theory of IR Features A kind of critical theory. Reveal the socially constructed character of IR It negates cognitivist approach to knowledge, rather it focusses more on knowledge created through social interactions, meaning making by societies. Focusses on role of ideas, identities, norms and culture in international politics Identity determines interests; interests determine action International organizations are purposive social agents in world politics that can shape state interests Closer to post-modernist approach to IR Main Thinkers Nicholas Onuf – coined the term ‘constructivism’ o His book ‘World of Our Making(1989)’ Alexander Wendt- most influential constructivist thinker His books: ‘’Social Theory of International Politics’’ 29  Peter J. Katzenstein Emanuel Adler Michael Barnett Kathryn Sikkink John Ruggie Martha Finnemore Her Book: ‘’National Interests in International Society’’ ‘’Rules for the World: International Organizations in Global Politics’’ 30 FACT SHEET 1.G: OTHER THEORIES/APPROACHES TO IR Themes/components Facts/features Post-Modernist Negate possibility of any objective truth. Approach to IR Truth or knowledge is subjective, depends on the perspective of the subject mistrust of grand narrative( meta-narrative): It reject grand theory such as Marxism or Hegel’s historicism De-constructivism: to understand true meaning of any word, concept, we need to analyse the word in relation to its opposites and other related words and how its meaning is related to these words. For example, feminist use de-constructivism to analyse gender relation by deconstructing the meaning of men & women in any language. Uses genealogy, text, narrative, discourse, deconstruction and double reading to explain world politics. Linked to Post-structuralism: analysing themes & concepts of IR going beyond the structure of state system, as done in Neo-realism & neo-liberalism. Michel Foucault and Jacques Derrida, both post- modernists, are founders of post-structuralism. Post-structuralism uses methods of deconstruction, double reading, archaeology and genealogy, etc. to understand IR. Main Thinkers Jean-François Lyotard: mistrust of grand narratives Michel Foucault: Power as normalisation, giving specific identity, and making people governable o Knowledge- power constituting each other Jacques Derrida- Deconstruction of text English school in IR The English school is built around three key concepts: international system, international society and world society. International System: formed when two or more states have sufficient contact between them, and have sufficient impact on 31  one another’s decisions to cause them to behave as parts of a whole. International Society: An international society exists when a group of like-minded states conceive themselves to be bound by a common set of rules in their relations with one another, and share in the working of common institutions international society is about the creation and maintenance of shared norms, rules and institutions. World system: world society transcends the state system and takes individuals, non-state actors and ultimately the global population as the focus of global societal identities and arrangements. Main Thinkers Herbert Butterfield –‘Diplomatic Investigations (1966)’ Hedley Bull- The Anarchical Society (1977) Martin Wight- Systems of States (1977) o He combined rationalism of Hugo Grotius, Realism of Hobbes, and Revolutionism of Kant to develop a synthetic IR theory James Mayall - Nationalism and International Society (1990) The Copenhagen The Copenhagen School places particular emphasis on School the non-military aspects of security, a shift away from traditional security studies Main thinkers: Barry Buzan, Ole Wæver and Jaap de Wilde. The primary book of the Copenhagen School is Security: A New Framework for Analysis, written by Buzan, Wæver and de Wilde. Many of the school's members worked at the Copenhagen Peace Research Institute. A prominent critic of the Copenhagen School is Bill McSweeney. 32 Rational Choice States and non-state actors in IR are rational actors- in Theory interaction they try to maximize their interest/preferences Outcomes in IR are result of rational behaviour by the concerned actors “logic of consequences” - actors choose the most efficient means to reach their goals on the basis of a cost- benefit analysis Key concepts - incomplete information, credibility, signalling, transaction costs, trust, and audience costs Rational Choice Institutionalism: actors use international institutions to maximize their utility, and that institutions affect rational behaviour of the actors. Main Thinkers: James D. Fearon(rationalist explanation for war), Thomas Schelling(conflicts as bargaining situations) 33 FACT SHEET: IR BOOKS & AUTHORS 34  FACT SHEET 2: IMPORTANT IR BOOKS AND THEIR AUTHOR(S) Ideology Book( year) Author Theme Realism Politics Among Nations: Hans 6 principles of classical The Struggle for Power Morgenthau realism and Peace (1948) Melian dialogue (about Thucydides War between Athens & 400 BCE) Sparta- Peloponnesian war 1.‘Theory of International Kenneth Gave theory of Neo- Politics’(1979) Waltz realism 2. Man, the State, and War Level of Analysis The Tragedy of Great John Offensive Neo-realism- Power Politics (2001) Mearsheimer states are power maximisers; conflict between great powers will never see an end The Twenty years' Crisis E. H. Carr Realist account of (1939) International-war period Moral Man and Immoral Reinhold Christian realism Society (1932) Niebuhr Nature and destiny of Man (1939) 1) The Coming Robert 1) Theses on the state of Anarchy (article,1994) Kaplan current world affairs 2) Asia's Cauldron in the post-Cold War (2014) era 3) Monsoon: The 2) Conflict among Indian Ocean and the nations in south China Future of American Sea Power (2010) 3) growing importance of the Indian Ocean and its perimeter states as the new geopolitical 35  center of the developing world Perception and Robert Jervis political psychology: Misperception in cognitive psychology to International Politics( decision making in IR- 1976) The Art of War(1521) Niccolò A realist account of Machiavelli military history, strategy, or theory; in the form of Socratic dialogue The Art of War(5th Sun Tzu ancient Chinese military Century BCE) treatise Leviathan (1651) Thomas Realist account of state Hobbes of nature, state, sovereignty, a-moral and value-free international system, etc. System and Process in Morton A. unit level analysis and International Politics Kaplan system theory in IR (1957) Liberalism On the Law of War and Hugo Grotius Jus ad Bellum (right to Peace(1625) war) Jus in Bello (rights in war) Rights of Individuals Humanitarian Intervention Freedom of the Seas Perpetual Immanuel Democratic peace theory Peace (1795) Kant 14 point peace Woodrow Idealism in IR- peace, principle(1918) Wilson cooperation, interdependence After Hegemony: Robert Gave principles of neo- Cooperation and Discord Keohane liberalism in IR 36  in the World Political Economy(1984) Soft Power: The Means To Joseph Nye Nye coined ‘soft power’ Success In World Politics( in IR 2004) Power and Keohane and Gave theory of complex Interdependence-World Nye interdependence Politics in Transition Primary book of neo- (1977) liberalism in IR 1.Liberal Peace: Selected Michael W. Gave democratic peace Essays ( 2011) Doyle theory 2. ’Liberalism and World Politics’’( 1986) The Functional Theory of David Gave theory of Politics (1975) Mitrany Functional integration International Regimes Stephen D. international regime as (1983) Krasner international process and collection of rules, norms of behaviour in IR Diplomacy and Domestic Robert Gave Two-Level Game Politics: The Logic of Putnam theory for international Two-Level Games (1988) organisation Taking Preferences Andrew Role of domestic factors Seriously: A Liberal Moravcsik in shaping international Theory of International relations Relations (1997) Marxism Economic and Karl Marx Early Marx- Theory of Philosophic Manuscripts Alienation (1844) materialistic conception With Engels The German Ideology of history (1845),; published in class struggle, conflict in 1932 With Engels capitalist society, social The Manifesto of the revolution "The history Communist Party (1848) of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles“ 37  Dissection of Das Kapital (Capital)- Capitalism, its 1967 contradiction, With Engles destructive tendencies a critique of the ‘Young Hegelians’ and their The Holy Family(1844) thoughts Note He wrote on class Other books by Marx: struggle, and socio- The Poverty of political history of Philosophy’ ; ‘The France. Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte’ ;’The Civil War in France’ ; ‘the Grundrisse’; ‘Theories of Surplus Value’ ;'the critique of political economy’, ‘The Class Struggles in France’, and ‘The Critique of the Gotha Program of 1875’ The Origin of the Family, Critique of capitalist Private Property and the Frederick nuclear family State (1884) Engels Socialism: Utopian and Scientific (1880) World-Systems Analysis: Gave ‘World System An Introduction (2004) Immanuel Theory’- Core, Semi- The Modern World- Wallerstein periphery, and Periphery System ( 1974) The Capitalist World- Economy (1979) The Development of Andre Gave the dependency Underdevelopment (1966) Gunder theory Frank 38 Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America (1967) Unequal Samir Amin Unequal exchange development(1974) between the ‘Core’ and ‘periphery’ Amin coined the term’ Eurocentrism’ ‘Prison Notebooks’ Antonio Gave theory of ‘cultural (1929-35) A Gramsci Hegemony’ Great and Terrible World: The Pre-Prison Letters, 1908-1926 The follies of critique of “realist” globalisation Theory Justin theory of IR ; provides a (2000) Rosenberg historical-materialist The empire of civil society approach to the (1994) international system Production, power, and Robert W. reciprocal relationship world order (1987) Cox between power and Political economy of a production plural world (2002) Globalisation: global civil society, power and knowledge Beyond Realism and Andrew Critical Theorist Marxism(1990) Linklater ‘The Transformation of Political Community’ (1998) Critical Theory and World Politics (2007) One-Dimensional Man Herbert critique of both (1964) Marcuse capitalism and the Communist society of the Soviet Union 39  The Theory of Jürgen Criticism of Communicative Action Habermas modernisation; (1981) adaptation of Talcott Parsons’ AGIL Paradigm Feminism Gendering world politics J. Ann Feminist re-formulation (2001) Tickner of 6 Principles of Morgenthau Gender in international J. Ann relations (1992) Tickner Bananas, Beaches and Cynthia Role of women in IR as Bases(1990) Enloe plantation sector workers, diplomatic wives, sex workers on military bases, etc. tackles themes of tourism, nationalism, militarism, consumerism, diplomacy, and domestic work. ‘Women and Wars’ Carol Cohn (2013) Gendering Global Laura Women’s issue in Conflict. Toward a Sjoberg conflict & war Feminist Theory of War (2013) Beyond the Band of Megan Busting the myth of only Brothers (2015) MacKenzie man capable of military service Just War Theory( 1991) Jean Bethke New Wine in Old Bottles: Elshtain International Politics and Ethical Discourse (1998) Women and War(1995) Feminist International Christine Relations: An Unfinished Sylvester Journey(2001) 40  Feminist International Marysia Relations: 'Exquisite Zalewski Corpse'(2013) Feminism and Sandra international relations Whitworth (1994) Social Social Theory of Alexander Propound constructivist Constructivism International Politics Wendt approach to the study of (1999) international relations World of our making ( Nicholas Formative book on 1989) Onuf constructivist approach to IR World Ordering: A Social Emanuel An evolutionary- Theory of Cognitive Adler constructivist social Evolution( 2019) theory of change and stability of international social orders A world of regions (2005) Peter J. Importance of regions in Katzenstein post-cold war global politics. National Interests in Martha International Society Finnemore (1996) Empire of Humanity: A Michael History of Barnett Humanitarianism (2011) Security Communities Emanuel a group of states that (1998) Adler and enjoy relations of Michael dependable expectations Barnett of a peace. Security: A New Barry Buzan, New perspective on non- Framework for Analysis Ole Wæver military security 41 The and Jaap de Copenhagen Wilde. School People, States and Fear: Barry Buzan The National Security Problem in International Relations (1983) Mixed Models, methods, and J.David Scientific study of world progress in world politics Singer politics and the causes (1990) and prevention of war. Political Community and Karl Deutsch Theory of Security the North Atlantic Area Community (1957) Essence of Decision Graham Decision making in IR (1971) Allison by case study of 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis India and Asian Shivshankar Geopolitics: The Past, Menon Present (2021) Never-Ending War on Alex Lubin Terror (2021) The Rule of Unwritten Peter G. International Law (2020) Staubach The Best and the Brightest David Explains origins of the (1972) Halberstam, Vietnam War- how common sense defy global politics Seeing Like a State (1998) James Scott, About man-made disasters by centralized political authority (i.e., the absence of dissent) and “totalistic” ideologies Strategy of Conflict Thomas Against the backdrop of Schelling the nuclear arms race in the late 1950s, the book 42  explains game theory in IR Arms and Influence Thomas Explains the diplomacy Schelling of violence- how arms capability gives bargaining powers to states Guns, Germs, and Steel. Jared explains why small Diamond differences in climate, population, agronomy, and the like turned out to have far-reaching effects on the evolution of human societies and the long-term balance of power in IR The Influence of Sea Alfred Role of sea power in IR Power Upon History: Thayer 1660–1783 Mahan An Inconvenient Truth Al Gore Al Gore got Nobel peace prize for his work on climate change. He headed IPCC. Things Fall Apart Chinua significant account of Achebe colonialism in Africa Heart of Darkness Joseph raises questions Conrad about imperialism and racism Black skin, while mask Frantz Fanon post-colonial studies, Eurocentrism, black side of European culture A dying Colonialism Frantz Fanon Frantz Fanon- one of the most prolific post- colonial writer/thinker The wretched of the Earth Frantz Fanon 43 Orientalism Edward Said provides deep insight about colonialism from the perspective of colonized people. a critique of the cultural representations of ‘Eastern’ Culture by ‘Europe’ Capitalism and Andre Explained his Underdevelopment in Gunder dependency Theory- Latin America Frank developing nation as satellites to the core- developed nations Eurocentrism: Modernity, Samir Amin Explained his concept of Religion & Democracy Eurocentrism The Implosion of Contemporary Capitalism The Clash of Civilization Samuel P. In this book Huntington (1996) Huntington argued that future wars would be fought not between countries, but between cultures The Third Wave: Samuel P. Account of Democratization in the Huntington democratisation all Late Twentieth Century around the globe in (1991) 1980s with weakening of Communism. The Great Illusion (1909) Norman discuss why there is war Angell between the countries of Europe, and how those could be avoided Bounding Power (2007) Daniel Explains republican Deudney security theory, a stream of realism in IR Men and Citizens in the Andrew deals with the tension Theory of International Linklater between the obligations Relations(1982) of citizenship and the obligations of humanity in modern theories of the 44  state and international relations The Rise and Fall of the Paul Great Powers (1987) Kennedy Preparing for the Twenty-first Century (1993) Conflict and defense Kenneth E. (1962) Boulding Seeing Like a James C. Raises question to high State(1998) Scott modernism, that centers on confidence in the ability to design and operate society in accordance with Weapons of the scientific laws Weak(1985) Coined the term ‘Infra- politics’- methods adopted by weak/sub- alterns to resist the dominant class The Influence of Sea Alfred Power upon Thayer History(1890) Mahan The Great Karl Polanyi political upheavals that Transformation( 1944) took place in England during the rise of the market economy Manias, Panics and Charles P. Account of great Crashes( 1978) Kindleberge depression and other global financial crisis Rules for the World( Martha How International 2004) Finnemore organisation works The Anti-Politics James a critique of the Machine(1990) Ferguson mainstream discourse of "development" 45  Our enemies and US( Ido Oren challenges IR’s 2003) understanding of itself as an objective, progressive social science. The Better Angels of Steven long-term downwards Our Nature( 2011) Pinker trends in war and use of violence in IR Ruling the Void Peter Mair Raises issue of decline of Democratic politics White House Years & Henry Known for his ‘ Shuttle Years of Kissinger Diplomacy’ Upheaval(1973) The Best and the David origins of the Vietnam Brightest(1972) Halberstam War Arms and Thomas Use of military Influence(1966) Schelling capabilities as bargaining power in IR People, States and Barry Buzan Buzan- Copenhagen Fear(1983) School Systems of states (1977) Martin Wight Wight – English School The Anarchical Society Hedley Bull Belonged to the English (1977) School After Victory (2001) John He is liberal and Liberal Leviathan Ikenberry (2011) The Cold War: A New John Lewis Greatest historian of the History(2005) Gaddis cold war Pax Indica ( 2012) Shashi Tharoor Friends Not Masters( Mohammad autobiography of 1967) Ayub Khan President Mohammad Ayub Khan of Pakistan, and also a description of 46  the major events in the history of Pakistan The shallow graves of 2000 Shahryar Khan Rwanda An American Social Stanley Science: International Hoffmann Relations Nationalism and Anthony D. modernism Smith Imagined Benedict Nation as imagined Communities(1983) Anderson community Nations and Ernest Nationalism( 1983) Gellner Tragedy of Garrett How rational choice by Commons(1968) Hardin actors kill the common property Silent Spring( 1962) Rachel Landmark book on Carson ecology Limits to growth( 1972) Club of Early idea of sustainable Rome development Our Common Future( Brundtland This was UN 1987) Commission commission on sustainable development Neo-colonialism: The Kwame Coined the term’ Neo- Last Stage of Nkrumah colonialism’ Imperialism (1965) The nerves of Karl Deutsch Landmark book on government (1963) communication theory- cybernetics View from the UN U Thant 3rd secretary-general of UN -1961 to 1971 1st from Asia Longest serving UN Sec- Gen 47  In the Eye of the Storm Kurt 4th secretary-general of Waldheim UN Pilgrimage for Peace Javier Pérez 5th secretary-general of de Cuéllar UN Interventions: A Life in Kofi Annan 7th secretary-general of War in Peace UN Unvanquished: A U.S.– Boutros 6th secretary-general of U.N. Saga Boutros- UN Ghali Casino Capitalism Susan Challenges conventional (1986) Strange ideas on global economy The Retreat of the state( How globalisation affect 1996) Sovereignty of states Books on Globalism/Anti- Anthony globalisation Globalization(2002) McGrew and David Held Democracy and the David Held Held is one the most global order(1995) influential thinker on Globalization(1999) globalisation Cosmopolitanism: Also remember his book Ideals and : ‘Models of Democracy Realities(2007) (1987)’ Global Transformations( 1999) The World is Flat: The Thomas Globalized World in the Friedman Twenty-first Century( 2007) In Defense of Jagdish Globalization (2004) Bhagwati Globalization and Its Joseph Globalisation itself is not Discontents (2002) Stiglitz bad but it has not been pushed carefully, or fairly Stiglitz is a Noble laureate 48  Ten Lessons for a Post- Fareed He is considered as neo- Pandemic World( 2020) Zakaria classical realist The Post-American World (2008) Few popular Revolution in Kevin Mazur Contemporary Syria(2021) books on IR Sincerity in Politics and Sorin Baiasu Collection of Essays International Relations( 2021) India and Asian Shivshankar Menon served as Geopolitics( 2021) Menon National Security Adviser( NSA) of India under Prime Minister of India Manmohan Singh Territorial Politics and Martin Belov Secession(2021) 49 FACT SHEETS: MAJOR GLOBAL EVENTS, TREATIES, MOVEMENTS 50  FACT SHEET 1: MAJOR COLD WAR EVENTS IN CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER Event Year Addl. Info/Features/Trivia Truman 1947 US foreign policy towards containment of Doctrine Communist expansion worldwide, especially in 3rd world “US would provide political, military and economic assistance to all democratic nations under threat from external or internal authoritarian forces” Called ‘containment’ policy Berlin 1948-49 Blockade of West Berlin by USSR; Western Allies Blockade organised the Berlin Airlift to keep food and supplies flowing to West Berlin 1st major crisis of the cold war Korean War 1950-1953 Korea was Japan’s colony; after defeat of Japan in WWII, it was divided into North and South Korea along 38 degree latitude; North-Communist; South: Capitalist 1950-53: War between north & south Korea supported by USSR/China and USA respectively 1st major war during the Cold war The Suez 1956 Egypt nationalised the Suez Canal Crisis This led to invasion of Egypt in late 1956 by Israel, followed by the United Kingdom and France Known as 2nd Arab-Israel war, after the 1st war in 1948 Hungarian 1956 countrywide revolution against the USST supported Revolution communist Government Was suppressed by USSR U-2 Incident 1960 USSR shot down U-2 reconnaissance plane of USA over its territory claiming it was Spy plane Resulted into diplomatic crisis and cancelling the 1960 Paris Summit between the WWII allied powers 51 Congo Crisis 1960-65 Civil war in Congo after it gained independence from Belgium Proxy war between USA and USSR; they supported rival groups Erection of the 1961 Major diplomatic activities concerning the city of Berlin Wall Berlin The ‘Iron Curtain’ manifested in form of physical barrier ( the Berlin Wall) between the ‘Eas