Age of Exploration (1450-1800)

The belief that Hernán Cortés and his men were the god Quetzalcoatl, which influenced the Aztecs' initial welcoming of them.

Hernán Cortés and his troops initially impressed the Aztecs with their advanced technologies like steel swords, gunpowder, horses, and war dogs, though they still viewed them as inferior.

The Aztec warfare focused on capturing enemies, while the Spanish fought to kill, contributing to the Aztecs' vulnerability.

Cortés's alliance with the Tlaxcalans, enemies of the Aztecs, ensured a powerful force against the Aztecs and helped to overcome Aztec resistance.

The spread of diseases like smallpox, which the Aztecs had no immunity to, decimated their population and weakened their resistance against the Spanish.

The Spanish established control over the Aztecs by capturing their leader, Moctezuma, and using him as a puppet ruler, ensuring the Aztecs' compliance.

A large and politically powerful empire in South America, known for its wealth, tribute system, and vast territory spanning from Chile to Colombia.

Francisco Pizarro found the Inca Empire in a state of division, which facilitated his conquest of the empire.

Henry VIII, King of England, broke away from the Catholic Church and established the Church of England because the Pope refused to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, who had failed to produce a male heir. This allowed him to marry Anne Boleyn and pursue a male heir.

Believing God predetermined who would be saved, Calvinists believed that the 'elect' were chosen by God for salvation. This doctrine had a significant impact on the French Protestants (Huguenots).

The Catholic Reformation, also called the Counter-Reformation, was a period of renewal and reform within the Catholic Church, prompted by the Protestant Reformation. It aimed to address criticisms of the Church and reaffirm Catholic beliefs.

The Papal Inquisition was established by the Catholic Church to combat heresy during the Reformation. It involved rigorous questioning and torture to identify and punish those deemed to be deviating from Catholic doctrines.

These reforms involved banning the sale of indulgences, emphasizing a stricter spiritual life for priests, requiring weekly mass attendance, and actively combating Protestant ideas. They served as a counter-attack against Protestant influence.

A system where European nations dominated global trade, using military power to secure harbors and trading routes.

Companies like the British East India Company, Dutch East India Company, and Muscovy Company pooled resources from investors to finance trade ventures. Profits were shared among investors, and a successful company meant financial gain for its stakeholders.

The British East India Company played a key role in establishing British presence in Asia, which eventually led to colonialism in India.

The Dutch East India Company controlled trade routes to the Spice Islands, which were known for their valuable spices like nutmeg and cloves.

The Muscovy Company held a monopoly on trade routes to Russia, influencing the flow of goods and resources between the two regions.

This new economic order, dominated by Europeans, saw Spain and Portugal initially lead, but their economic resources couldn't keep up with the burgeoning trade demands. Eventually, England, France, and Holland gained greater dominance.

Mercantilism, a key economic policy, protected home markets by encouraging exports and discouraging competition from colonies and rivals through tariffs.

Nations outside Europe became dependent on European manufactured goods and were exploited for low-cost raw materials, creating an unequal system of global trade.

The Mughal Empire was established in India by Babur who defeated the Delhi Sultanate, and grew to encompass almost the entire subcontinent under his successors like Akbar and Jahangir. They used their military prowess, skilled alliances, and religious tolerance to unite India.

Akbar, a Mughal emperor known for promoting tolerance, established policies allowing both Hinduism and Islam to be practiced openly. This religious harmony under his rule contributed to a golden age of cultural and economic prosperity.

The Mughal Empire's wealth, acquired through trade, attracted European powers like the Portuguese and British. They gained limited access to Mughal ports, but also sparked conflict over trade and territory, ultimately leading to the decline of the Mughal Empire.

The Mughal Empire's high culture reflected its diverse populace. While Islam played a significant role in politics and law, both Muslims and Hindus contributed to the flourishing arts.

The end of religious tolerance under Mughal emperor Aurangzeb marked a turning point for the empire. Pro-Muslim policies, including taxes on Hindus and the destruction of temples, led to resistance and ultimately weakened the Mughal Empire's control.

Charles I and Parliament disagreed on the King's power, leading to armed conflict between the two sides.

The supporters of Parliament, also known as the Roundheads, clashed with the Royalists, led by Charles I.

Charles I was found guilty of treason and executed in 1649, marking a significant shift in English power dynamics.

The Commonwealth, led by Oliver Cromwell, replaced the monarchy for a period, ruling with a stricter approach.

Charles II was invited back to restore the monarchy after Cromwell's death, marking the period of the Stuart Restoration.

The Glorious Revolution was a bloodless coup that replaced James II with William and Mary, establishing a Protestant government and limiting the power of the monarch.

The English Bill of Rights, enacted in 1689, outlined limits on the monarchy's power and established fundamental rights for citizens.

The Parliamentary Monarchy, a system where the power of the monarch is limited by Parliament, emerged from these events, establishing a new balance of power.

A Russian Empress who centralized her power by gaining support from the boyars, making them tax-exempt to ensure loyalty, and putting down any peasant rebellions.

A rebellion led by a group of warrior peasants against the rule of Catherine the Great, which was ultimately suppressed by the Russian army due to the support of the boyars.

The Ottoman Empire's elite military force composed of Christian boys taken as slaves, converted to Islam, trained in warfare, and employed in fighting and administration.

A period in Ottoman history marked by advancements in architecture, art, and intellectual pursuits, ushered in by the reign of Sultan Suleiman I.

The Ottoman Empire's expansion in land and sea during the 15th-17th centuries, enabled by their powerful military, technological advancements, and skilled strategic use of gunpowder warfare.

The Ottoman Empire's control over the Bosphorus Strait, connecting the Aegean Sea to the Black Sea, which allowed them to levy taxes on ships passing through, ultimately contributing to their economic prosperity.

The Ottoman Empire's major conquest and wealthiest territory, gained in 1517, where the Mamluks, a powerful ruling force, had previously held control over Egypt.

A period of reform in the Ottoman Empire initiated by the Koprulu family during the 17th century, aimed at restoring financial stability, curbing corruption, and strengthening the empire.

The Safavid Dynasty, based in modern-day Iran, which established a centralized state founded upon Shia Islam and military conquest, and became a rival to the Ottoman Empire.

The Safavid ruler, Shah Abbas I, reigned during the dynasty's 'Golden Age' in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, known for strengthening the army, promoting trade, and developing the city of Isfahan.

The ability of the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal empires to effectively utilize newly developed firearms, which led to changes in military tactics and strategy, contributing to their expansion and control of vast territories.

The Ottoman Empire's decline in the 18th and 19th centuries, fueled by various factors including political instability, a failing economy, and the rise of western European powers.

The cultural synthesis that emerged within the Ottoman Empire, characterized by a blend of Islamic traditions, ethnic groups, and different religious communities, allowing for cultural diversity and development.

The Ottoman Empire's use of European science and technology in various fields, as evidenced by the establishment of a printing press and the incorporation of European scientific texts into educational systems.