Ancient India PDF 2023-24

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https://www.pdfnotes.co/ https://www.pdfnotes.co/  https://www.pdfnotes.co/ EDITION: 2023-24 Published By: Physics Wallah ISBN: 978-81-19130-83-2 Mobile App: Physics Wallah (Available on Play Store) Website: www.pw.live Youtube Channel: Physics Wallah - Alakh Pandey UPSC Wallah UPSC Wallah - Hindi Medium PSC Wallah - UP Bihar MPSC Wallah Email: [email protected] Rights All rights are reserved with the Publisher. No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission from the author or publisher. In the interest of the student community: Circulation of soft copy of Book(s) in PDF or other equivalent format(s) through any social media channels, emails, etc. or any other channels through mobiles, laptops or desktop is a criminal offense. Anybody circulating, downloading, or storing, a soft copy of the book on his device(s) is in breach of the Copyright Act. Further photocopying of this book or any of its material is also illegal. Do not download or forward in case you come across any such soft copy material. Disclaimer A team of PW OnlyIAS experts and faculties with a deep understanding of the subject has worked hard for the creation and curation of this book. While the content creators, editors and publisher have used their best efforts in preparing these books. The content has been checked for accuracy. As the book is intended for educational purposes, the author shall not be responsible for any errors contained in the book. The publication has designed the content to provide accurate and authoritative information with regard to the subject matter covered. This book and the individual contribution contained in it are protected under Copyright Act by the publisher. (This Book shall only be used for educational purposes.)  https://www.pdfnotes.co/ PREFACE A highly skilled professional team of PW ONLY IAS works arduously to ensure that the students receive the best content for the UPSC exams. A plethora of UPSC Study Material is available in the market but PW ONLY IAS professionals are continuously working to provide supreme quality study material for our UPSC students. From the beginning, the content team comprising Content Creators, Reviewers, DTP operators, Proofreaders, and others is involved in shaping the material to their best knowledge and experience to produce powerful content for the students. Faculties have adopted a new style of presenting the content in easy-to-understand language and have provided the team with expert guidance and supervision throughout the creation of this book. PW ONLY IAS strongly believes in conceptual and fun-based learning. PW ONLY IAS provides highly exam-orient- ed content to bring quality and clarity to the students. This book adopts a multi-faceted approach to mastering and understanding the concepts by having a rich diversity of questions asked in the examination and equipping the students with the knowledge for this competitive exam. The main objective of the study material is to provide short, crisp, concise, and high-quality content to our students. BOOK FEATURES z Holistic discussion of topics, strictly as per UPSC Prelims and Mains exam syllabus z One-stop solution for subject-wise coverage z Diagrams, Flowcharts, and Timelines for quick understanding and revision z Integrated Preparation of Prelims and Mains stages of this exam  https://www.pdfnotes.co/ CONTENTS 1. Early Stone Age.........................................1–7 4. Aryan Culture and Early Vedic Age.....30–34  Introduction........................................................ 1  Debate Over Authors of Vedic Texts................. 30  Pre-Historic Period: 30,00,000BC – 600BC...... 1  Indo-Aryans...................................................... 30  Historical Sources............................................... 1  Vedic Literature................................................. 30  Palaeolithic or Old Stone  Rig Vedic Culture or Early Vedic Culture......... 31 Age: 30,00,000BC – 10,000BC.......................... 3  Social Life of Rig Vedic Aryans and  Lower Palaeolithic Age in India:......................... 3 Status of Women............................................... 32  Mesolithic Culture or Middle Stone Age:  Varna in the Rig Veda: Das and Dasyus............ 32 9000 BC-4000 BC.............................................. 6  Political Organisation During Rig Vedic Phase................................................. 32 2. Neolithic and Chalcolithic Culture.........8–14  Political Clashes................................................ 33  Neolithic Age or New Stone Age: 7000  Economy........................................................... 33 BC - 1000 BC..................................................... 8  Religion and Rituals.......................................... 34  Chalcolithic Age / Copper-Stone Age: 3500 BC - 1000 BC.......................................... 12 5. Later Vedic Phase..................................35–38  Iron Age (1000 BC- 500 BC) 14  Expansion of the Aryans................................... 35  Use of Iron........................................................ 35 3. Harappan Civilization...........................15–29  Settlements and Territories............................... 35  Introduction...................................................... 15  The Varna Hierarchy......................................... 36  Checklist for Qualifying a Site as a Harappan  Social Organization and Status of Women....... 36 Civilisation Site................................................. 15  Political Organization....................................... 36  IVC: Geography, Famous Sites and Archaeological Findings.................................... 15  Economy........................................................... 37  Relation Between Early, Mature and Late  Religious Faith and Belief System..................... 37 Harappan Phase................................................ 17  Philosophical Aspects of Later Vedic Phase...... 38  General Features of Mature Harappan Settlements........................................................ 17 6. Age of Mahajanpadas............................39–42  Harappan Crafts and Techniques...................... 18  Reasons for Development of Second  Relation Between Seals and Economy of Urbanization in Indo-Gangetic Plains.............. 39 Harappan Civilisation....................................... 20  From Janapadas to Mahajanapadas................... 39  Imports to Harappan Cities.............................. 21  The 16 Maha Janapadas.................................... 39  Nature and Uses of Writing.............................. 21  Basic Features of Mahajanapadas...................... 42  Weighing and Measure During Harappan  The Ganas or Sanghas..................................... 42 Civilisation........................................................ 22  Religion and Belief System............................... 22 7. Buddhism and Jainism..........................43–58  Society............................................................... 22  Causes of Awakening........................................ 43  Agriculture........................................................ 23  Heterodox Sects............................................... 43  Fall of Harappan Civilisation............................ 23  Ajivikas.............................................................. 43  Later Phase of Harappan Civilisation............... 24  Other Minor Heterodox Schools...................... 44  Difference with Contemporary Civilisation...... 24  Jainism............................................................... 44  Important Sites of Harappan Civilisation......... 26  Buddhism.......................................................... 49  https://www.pdfnotes.co/  Early Life of Buddha......................................... 49  Administration.................................................. 82  The Buddha’s Teachings.................................... 50  Revenue............................................................. 82  Comparison of Jainism and Buddhism.............. 57  Architecture....................................................... 82  Major Differences Between Buddhism and  Economic Condition......................................... 82 Jainism............................................................... 57 12. Early History of South India..................83-87 8. India of the Pre-Mauryan Period.........59–61  Political History................................................ 83  Cause of Growth of Magadha Mahajanapada.... 59  Cheras............................................................... 83  Haryanka Dynasty............................................ 59  Chola................................................................. 84  Shishunaga Dynasty.......................................... 60  Pandyas............................................................ 84  Nanda Dynasty (362 BCE)............................... 60  Minor Chieftains............................................... 84 9. Mauryan Empire...................................62–73  Sangam Literature............................................. 85  Persian Invasions............................................... 62  Administration of Sangam Period..................... 86  Impact of Persian Invasion on India.................. 62  Society.............................................................. 86  Alexander’s Invasion of India (327-325 B.C.)..... 62  Economy........................................................... 86  Age of Mauryas................................................. 63  Ideology and Religion....................................... 87  Political History of Mauryas............................. 65  Position of Women............................................ 87  Later Mauryas................................................... 67  Arts................................................................... 87  Mauryan Administration................................... 67  Revenue and Agriculture................................... 69 13. Gupta Empire.......................................88-102  Crafts and Goods.............................................. 69  Sources of History Gupta period...................... 88  Trade................................................................ 69  Administration of Gupta empire....................... 91  Coins and Currency.......................................... 70  Ministers and other Officials............................. 91  Army................................................................. 70  Royal Land Grants............................................ 95  Census............................................................... 70  Provincial and Local Administration................ 70  Society............................................................... 95  Material Culture................................................ 70  Art and Architecture......................................... 97  Art and Architecture of Mauryas...................... 70  Literature........................................................... 98  Decline of Mauryan Empire............................. 73  Vakatakas......................................................... 100  Political History.............................................. 101 10. Age of Invasion: Contact with  Nandivardhana Branch/Line........................... 101 Central Asia 74-79  Foreign Invaders................................................ 74 14. Rise of Harsha.....................................103-106  The Indo-greeks................................................ 74  India after Fall of Gupta Empire..................... 103  Impact of Indo-Greek Rule............................... 74  The Maitrakas................................................ 103  Shakas or Scytho-Parthians............................... 75  The Maukharies.............................................. 103  The Kushanas.................................................... 75  Pushyabhutis................................................... 104  The Impact and Contribution of Contacts  Rajyavardhana (605–606 CE)......................... 104 with Central Asia.............................................. 77  Harshavardhana (606 – 647 CE).................... 104  Shaka Kshatrapas of Western India.................. 79  Administration of Harsha............................... 105  Kshaharata Dynasty.......................................... 79  Provincial Administration............................... 105 11. India After the Mauryas.........................80-82  Taxation........................................................... 105  Sungas.............................................................. 80  Society............................................................. 105  The Satavahana Empire in the Deccan............. 81  Religious Policy............................................... 106  Political History of Satavahanas........................ 81  Harsha as a Patron of Art and Literature........ 106 v  https://www.pdfnotes.co/ 15. Empires in East..................................107-109  Legacy in Science and Civilization.................. 119  Bengal............................................................ 107  From Ancient to Medieval............................. 119  Assam.............................................................. 108 18. Terminology Used During  Orissa.............................................................. 109 Ancient Times....................................121-126 16. South Indian Empires........................110-115  Vedic Period.................................................... 121  Pallavas............................................................ 110  Types of Marriage in Vedic Age...................... 122  Chalukyas........................................................ 114  Rivers in Vedic Texts....................................... 122  Chalukaya’s of Badami................................... 114  Jainism & Buddhism....................................... 122  The Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi..................... 115  Bodhisattvas (Individual who attains nirvana by  The Kadambas of Banavasi............................. 115 working for the welfare of the world).............. 123  The Western Gangas of Mysore..................... 115  Magadh Empire.............................................. 123 17. Legacy of Ancient History: Transition to  Kushan Empire and Satavahanas.................... 124  Sangam Age.................................................... 125 Medieval Period.................................116–120  Term Related to Irrigation in Sangam Age..... 125  Changes in Society.......................................... 116  Gupta Period................................................... 125  Philosophy....................................................... 117  Post Gupta and Other Terms.......................... 126  Influence on Culture of Neighboring Countries 118 19. Timeline: History of Ancient India.....127-134 vi  https://www.pdfnotes.co/ 1 Early Stone Age INTRODUCTION PRE-HISTORIC PERIOD: z Numerous prehistoric sites have been discovered in 30,00,000BC – 600BC the Indian subcontinent since the 19th century, and z It consists of 5 periods – Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, new approaches and viewpoints have improved our knowledge of the stone age—the period of human Neolithic, Chalcolithic & Iron Age. history that lasted the longest. z No written records are available. z The most plentiful and significant sources are three z Archaeological remains: stone tools, pottery, divisions of history: artefacts, and metal implements used by prehistoric  Prehistory is the study of events that took place people. prior to the development of writing, which is typically represented by the three stone eras. z Robert Bruce Foote: discovered what was probably  Proto-history: When a civilization has not yet the first Palaeolithic tool discovered in India — the acquired writing but is recorded in the written “Pallavaram handaxe''. R. B Foote is known as the records of a contemporary literate civilisation, it “father of Prehistoric Archaeology”. Robert Bruce alludes to a period between prehistory and history. Foote deserves credit for conducting an early, thorough For instance, no one has yet been able to read the study of Indian prehistory. script of the Harappan civilization. z Sir Mortimer Wheeler: contributed towards our  History is the study of the past after writing was invented and the study of literate societies using knowledge of the prehistoric cultures of India and written and archaeological evidence. their sequence. Pre-Historic Period Paleolithic Age Mesolithic Age Neolithic Age Chalcolothic Age (7000BC- Iron Age (30,00,000BC- (9000BC- (3500BC- 1000BC) (1000BC-500BC) 10,000BC) 4000BC) 1000BC) Pre-Harappan Harappan Age: Post-Harappan Age: 3500BC- 2500BC- Age: 2000BC- 2500BC 1750BC 1000BC HISTORICAL SOURCES Sources Evidences Information z Radio-Carbon Dating: Is a method for z Almost every aspect of lifestyle like, use of determining the age of an object. pottery type, house construction design, z Dendro-Chronology: The scientific method agriculture (grains produced), animals of dating tree rings (also called growth rings) domesticated, type of tools, weapons etc. and Material burial practices of the time and geography. to the exact year they were formed. Remains z Structures: Grand Stone temples of Southern z Vertical Excavations: provides chronological India; Brick Monasteries of the Eastern India; sequence of material culture. vertical & horizontal excavations of mounds; z Horizontal Excavation: Gives complete idea Megaliths (South India) of particular culture.  https://www.pdfnotes.co/ z The study of coins is called Numismatics. z Not many symbols used in earliest coins; z Coins excavated and collected from the Names of the Kings or issuer (guilds/ surface and catalogued in various museums merchants), Gods or dates are mentioned throughout the country and outside. in the coins from later periods; help in construction of religious, cultural and economic history with chronology. z Local and cross-border transactions that Coins used these coins tell us about various ruling dynasties and extent of their rule. z Metal and number of the coins indicates the level of trade, commerce and wealth in a Kingdom. z Only a few coins belonging to post-Gupta times indicate the decline of trade & commerce in that period. z Epigraphy: The study of Inscriptions z Pictographic Harappan Inscriptions are yet z Paleography: Study of old writings on to be deciphered. inscriptions and other records. z South India: Inscriptions on temple walls. z Inscriptions carved on seals, stone pillars, z Inscriptions conveyed various information rocks, copper plates, temple walls and bricks like royal orders and decisions regarding or images. social, religious and administrative matters Inscriptions z Earliest in Prakrit (300 BC), later in Sanskrit (e.g., Ashokan Inscriptions) to officials and and further later in regional languages. people in general. z Ashokan Inscriptions: Scripts used - Brahmi, Kharosthi, Greek & Arabic. z Donations, land grants, and the achievements of Kings and Conquerors (Samudragupta and Pulkeshin 2nd etc.). z The four Vedas, Ramayana and Mahabharata, z In India, the oldest manuscripts were written Smritis and Dharmasutras, Epics, Jain & on birch bark & palm leaves. Buddhist texts, poetry, Sangam Literature, z Kautilya’s ‘Arthashastra’ gives exhaustive plays etc. coverage of affairs that concern a King and his economy, polity, administration and society at large. z “Purana” provides dynastic history upto Gupta rule. z These sources also indicate the usage of language, script and style of writing. Literary z Rajatarangini: This is the famous book Sources: written by Kalhana and depicts the social and political life of 12th century CE Kashmir. z Sangam literature: This is the earliest south Indian literature, produced by poets who assembled together (Sangam), and provides valuable information about the social, economic and political life of the people living in deltaic Tamil Nadu. z Literary work of Kalidasa: The works of the great poet Kalidasa comprises kavyas and dramas, the most important being Abhijnanasakuntalam. 2 Ancient India  https://www.pdfnotes.co/ z Accounts of Greeks, Romans or Chinese either z Alexander’s invasion: solely reconstructed as official historians, diplomats, pilgrims or based on Greek sources. even navigators/explorers. z “Indica” of Megasthenes: provides information about the Mauryan period. z Pliny’s “Naturalis Historia”: account of trade imbalance between India and the Foreigner’s Roman empire. Accounts z Fa-Hein: a Buddhist traveller, left a vivid account of the age of the Guptas. z Hsuan-Tsang: Buddhist pilgrim, visited India and gave details of India under the reign of King Harshavardhana and the glory of the Nalanda University. The Indian Stone Age is largely divided into three z They have been recognised on rocky outcrops inside categories based on geological age, the type and or on the edges of various valleys, such as in Sindh's technology of stone tools, and subsistence level: Rohri Hills and the northern Vindhya Mountains. 1. Old Stone Age, Palaeolithic Age 2. Middle Stone Age, Mesolithic Age 3. New Stone Age, Neolithic Age PALAEOLITHIC OR OLD STONE AGE: 30,00,000BC – 10,000BC z The first stage of the Stone Age, which emerged during Handaxe Chopping tool, the Pleistocene or Ice Age, is known as the Palaeolithic laked on both sides Age. z The Palaeolithic cultures belong to the Pleistocene geological era, while the Mesolithic and Neolithic cultures belong to the Holocene era. z The Palaeolithic and Neolithic periods of the stone age were separated into two groups by John Lubbock in 1863. z Edouard Lartet proposed the separation of the Palaeolithic into the lower, middle, and higher Palaeolithic a few years later, partly in light of Cleaver Pebble tool variations in fauna connected to various tool types. z According to legend, the Negrito race comprised the  Famous sites of Old Stone Age in India: Palaeolithic humans who inhabited India and lived in  Soan valley and Potwar plateau caves and rock shelters.  Siwalik hills on the north India  They were hunters and gatherers of food who  Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh subsisted on wild fruits and vegetables.  Adamgarh Hills in Narmada Valley  Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh  They lacked any expertise in farming, home  Attirampakkam near Chennai construction, pottery, or metal.  They only developed an understanding of fire LOWER PALAEOLITHIC AGE IN INDIA in later stages. z With the exception of the Holocene boundary, the  Man used unpolished, undressed rough stone subcontinent's stone age cultures did not develop tools throughout this time, primarily hand axes, uniformly and neatly along a single line. Some of cleavers, choppers, blades, bruins, and scrapers. their characteristics vary regionally, and they have a wide range of dates. With the exception of the z In India, the Palaeolithic men are also known Indus and Ganga alluvial plains, it was distributed as "Quartzite Men" since the stone tools were throughout nearly the whole country of India. constructed of the hard rock "quartzite." Early Stone Age 3  https://www.pdfnotes.co/ Locations of Lower Palaeolithic Age in z In Rajasthan, lower, middle, and upper palaeolithic tools have been found around Ajmer and stray finds India of lower palaeolithic tools occur in the Luni valley. z In Gujarat, lower palaeolithic tools have been found in the valleys of the Sabarmati, its Orsang and Karjan tributaries, and in the Bhadar valley in Saurashtra. z In the Belan valley in Uttar Pradesh, detailed studies have revealed a sequence of stone age industries from the lower palaeolithic to neolithic to protohistoric. z Attirampakkam, in the Kortallayar river basin, is one of the richest palaeolithic sites in Tamil Nadu. Middle Palaeolithic Sites z Stone tools evolved gradually over the palaeolithic period. Handaxes, chopping tools, and cleavers did not disappear entirely, but the balance changed toward smaller, lighter flake tools, some of which were created using prepared core processes, such as the Levallois technique. z Flake culture: due to excessiveness of implements made from flakes. z Middle palaeolithic tools have been discovered in numerous places of the subcontinent, frequently in z The Potwar plateau and the Siwaliks have recently river gravels and deposits, providing information produced significant dates for settings from the lower about the prevailing climatic conditions. paleolithic. z Many stone tools, largely from the middle palaeolithic, z Riwat, a town close to Rawalpindi in Pakistan's have been discovered in the Potwar plateau between Punjab region, has far older dates. Stone tools with the Indus and Jehlum rivers in the north-west. an age of 2.4 to 2 mya were discovered at the sites of z A large number of stone age sites belonging to the Gurha Sahan and PS-57 embedded in the Pinjore bed middle palaeolithic phase onwards are located around of the Siwaliks. Budha Pushkar lake. z The stone tools found in the Siwalik hills' Jammu z Middle and upper palaeolithic tools are also found and Himachal parts appear to be from the same around Ajmer and Luni river system. time period. z The Nevasan industry is named after the location  The locations of factories are typically close to of Nevasa, where the pioneering archaeologist H. the sources of the raw materials, and they can D. Sankalia unearthed the first middle paleolithic be identified by the abundance of stone tools in artifacts. various states. z In South India, the middle palaeolithic culture is z Excavations in the Badarpur hills to the south of the city yielded thousands of early and late Acheulean marked by a flake tool industry. On the Visakhapatnam tools, as well as signs of many Yamuna river palaeo- coast, quartzite, chert, and quartz were frequently channels. used to make stone tools. PALEOLITHIC TOOLS LOWER PALEOLITHIC MIDDLE PALEOLITHIC Chopper: pebble, roughly Biface: hand axe knapped Knife: utensil knapped on Scraper: used for cleaning worked on one side. Used on both sides. Used for one side. Used for cutting animal hides and for digging and skinning. cutting. or as a weapon. sharpening knives. UPPER PALEOLITHIC Blade: inely knapped. Used as spear heads. Javelin: weapon for throwing. Similar to a small spear. Harpoon: used for ishing. Spear thrower: used Needle: made of bone and used Perforator: used for to throw javelins. for sewing. making holes in hides. 4 Ancient India  https://www.pdfnotes.co/ Upper Palaeolithic Sites Palaeolithic Art and Culture z The production of parallel sided blades was a The history of art begins with prehistoric art. It serves significant technological achievement of the upper as a significant window into the lives of ancient people. palaeolithic. There was an increase in the number Rock art also includes petroglyphs, a term for of burials as well. The tendency toward smaller tools when a portion of a rock surface is removed through must have resulted from responses to environmental engraving, bruising, hammering, chiselling, or scooping. changes. Petroglyphs are another term for paintings on rocks. z There is substantial and convincing evidence of z Flake-Blade culture: Due to excessiveness of upper palaeolithic rock carvings and paintings in implements made from Flake-Blade. southern Africa, Australia, and Europe.  The primary motif is animals, and some of the images may have been used in ritual hunting.  Venus figurines, or female figurines, may symbolise fertility rites and beliefs. z However, there is not much proof of palaeolithic art in India. The "auditorium cave," also known Blade Backed blades as Cave III F-24 at Bhimbetka, provides compelling evidence of artistic-cum-cultic activity.  This seems to relate to the borderline between the lower and middle palaeolithic. z For instance, a very damaged upper palaeolithic carved bone object was found at Lohanda Nala in the Blades with retouched margin Double borer on blade Belan valley (UP). z Animal teeth found in a cave at Kurnool have grooves which suggest that they may have been attached to a z The Kashmir upper Palaeolithic in north India has string and worn as ornaments. been dated to around 18,000 years ago, coinciding z The site of Baghor I in Madhya Pradesh has given with the advent of a warmer environment. fascinating evidence of an upper palaeolithic shrine z Due to growing aridness, there are fewer upper dated c. 9000–8000 BCE. Palaeolithic sites in the Thar than there were during z It is noteworthy to note that the Kol and Baiga the previous phase. tribal people, who still inhabit this region of the  However, the area around the lake in Budha Kaimur hills, erect circular rubble platforms and Pushkar was still occupied by people. revere such triangular stones as representations of z Upper Palaeolithic habitation sites have been the feminine principle or as deities. discovered in the Vindhyas' rock shelters and caves in central India. z Between 25,000 and 19,000 years ago, the upper palaeolithic context in the Belan valley was found, and 10,000 years ago in the Son valley. z It appears that Chopani Mando in the Belan valley was a human settlement with a cultural progression from the upper palaeolithic to the neolithic. z There are many upper palaeolithic sites in the Chotanagpur region and the Damin area of the Rajmahal hills. These include Paisra in Munger district. z Upper palaeolithic tools have been found in the various districts of West Bengal.  There is not enough evidence of the palaeolithic phase in Assam and other parts of the north- east. z The upper palaeolithic cave sites of Kurnool and The Life-Ways of Palaeolithic Hunter- Muchchatla Chintamanu Gavi in Andhra Pradesh Gatherers are the only places in the subcontinent where tools The palaeolithic lifestyles of those who lived in various made of animal bones have been found in an upper regions of the subcontinent were based on how well palaeolithic context. they adapted to those particular conditions. Early Stone Age 5  https://www.pdfnotes.co/ z However, these societies of hunters and gatherers z The term epi-palaeolithic is sometimes used for shared several fundamental traits with one another. the transitional stage of tools that are smaller than z People during the Paleolithic period resided in those typical of the upper palaeolithic, but smaller structures constructed of reeds, grass, twigs, or rocks. than microliths. z It is possible to distinguish between more and less permanent settlements, and some places stand in for particular types of activities.  Habitation sites like Bhimbetka and Hunsgi provide proof of long-term habitation.  Other sites point to transient camp sites where people arrived, stayed for a while, and then left. z Palaeolithic hunter-gatherers may have had a fundamental social structure that was similar to Quartz blades Chert burin what anthropologists refer to as a "band society." Features of Mesolithic Culture  Bands typically have fewer than 100 members. z Economy: The mesolithic economy, like the z Depending on the seasonal availability of the palaeolithic, was still essentially based on hunting and animals they hunt and the plant food they gather, gathering, but some sites have given evidence of the they frequently move about or are somewhat nomadic. domestication of animals. z A band's members typically have kinship ties to z Pottery: Pottery is absent at most mesolithic sites, but it occurs at Langhnaj in Gujarat and in the Kaimur one another, and they divide labour according to sex region of Mirzapur (UP). and age. z Types of settlement: Some seem to have been z Instead of being based on economic exchange, the laws permanent or semi-permanent settlements, or at least of reciprocity govern the interchange of products. settlements that were repeatedly inhabited over long  The natural resources that the entire band depends periods of time. on are not 'owned' by any one individual or group z Crops: The last phase of this age saw the beginning of people. of plant cultivation. The transition from a hunting- z The behaviour of members of the group is not gathering stage to the beginnings of settled agriculture can be traced at Chopani Mando in regulated by force but through customs, norms, the Belan valley. and social etiquette.  There were bones of wild cattle and sheep/goats. Habitation: Pieces of burnt clay with reed impressions MESOLITHIC CULTURE OR MIDDLE STONE z showed that the mesolithic people of Chopani Mando AGE: 9000 BC-4000 BC lived in wattle-and-daub huts. z The middle phase of Stone Age culture is represented Mesolithic Sites by the Mesolithic Age. The Holocene period includes Mesolithic and Neolithic cultures. z Bagor (in Bhilwara district of eastern Rajasthan) is one of the best documented mesolithic sites. z This is the transitional phase between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic ages. z In peninsular India, microlithic sites found in the vicinity of Mumbai seem to represent coastal mesolithic z No snakes are depicted in Mesolithic Paintings. communities who exploited marine resources for food. z In India, the credit of discovery of Mesolithic  Microliths have been found in other parts of archaeological material goes to John Evan. Maharashtra as well. z Mesolithic people subsisted on hunting, fishing, z They have been found at Jalahalli and Kibbanahalli gathering food, and later, domesticating animals. near Bangalore in Karnataka, in Goa, and at z The size reduction of well-known tool types was Nagarjunakonda (in southern AP), and Renigunta one of the main features of the Mesolithic Age. (in Chittoor district, AP). z Microliths, which can have both geometrical and z India's Central Region: Chhotanagpur. The earliest asymmetrical shapes and are typically formed of examples of animal domestication may be found in crypto-crystalline silica, chalcedony, or chert, were Adamgarh, M.P., and Bagor. the distinctive tools of this period. z Mesolithic sites from various regions of the  Microliths range in length from under 1 cm to subcontinent provide evidence of community 5 cm. interaction and migration. 6 Ancient India  https://www.pdfnotes.co/ Mesolithic Art z The Bhimbetka paintings reflect a division of z Prehistoric rock art first appeared during the labour on the basis of gender. Men hunt and women Mesolithic period. The first Indian rock paintings are shown gathering and preparing food, for instance were uncovered in 1867 at Sohagi Ghat (Kaimur Hills, grinding food on queens. UP). Since then, more than 150 Mesolithic rock art sites have been found in India, with a particularly high concentration in Central India in places like the Bhimbetka Caves, Kharwar, Jaora, and Kathotia (M.P.), Sundargarh and Sambalpur (Orissa), and Ezhuthu Guha (Kerala). z Most Mesolithic rock art sites feature scenes that are dominated by animals. Snakes and pottery, however, are not shown in Mesolithic paintings. Details of Bhimbetka z One of the seven hills, Bhimbetka is distinguished by a gorgeous natural setting. Nearly 400 of the 642 rock shelters here feature artwork, carvings, or bruising. Other Sites of Mesolithic Paintings z They clearly date to an ancient era based on their z Other locations in India have also yielded prehistoric style, topic, and worn condition. rock art sites. In the western areas of Orissa, particularly z There are sixteen distinct hues or tints, with white in the Sundargarh and Sambalpur districts, around 55 and light red being the most popular. rock shelters featuring rock art have been discovered. z The colours were created by grinding minerals, z The 12 rock shelters of the Lekhamoda group in the which were then combined with water or another reserve forests of Chhengapahad and Garjanpahad are substance like egg white, marrow, or animal fat. the most prolific locations for rock art. z The red was created using iron oxide (geru), the z One of these rock shelters was excavated, and the white using limestone, and the green perhaps using results showed a cultural progression from the green chalcedony. mesolithic to the chalcolithic. z Paintings come in both monochrome and z The coexistence of paintings and engravings in the polychrome variations. same shelter is an intriguing aspect of Orissa's rock z The brush itself is made from semal (silk cotton), art. animal fur, or squirrel tail.  Emphasis is on decorative patterns that are z At Bhimbetka, animals predominate in the scenes. abstract and both geometric and non-geometric The artwork features 29 different types of animals, in nature. Humans are even less common than including the chital (which is the most prevalent), animals in terms of occurrence. leopard, tiger, panther, elephant, rhinoceros, antelope, z Kerala too has many rock art sites with paintings deer, and squirrel. and carvings. One of the oldest is the cave known as z Animals are portrayed either by themselves or as Ezhuthu Guha. a part of hunting scenarios in mesolithic art from z A very interesting, rather abstract painting has been Bhimbetka and other locations. found in a rock shelter at Jaora (MP). Perhaps it reflects z Hunters engage in solitary or group pursuits a view of the world consisting of air, earth, and fire. and occasionally don masks and horned or antlered headdresses. PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTION (MAINS) z A few paintings are in the ‘x-ray style’, showing the inner organs, including foetuses in the womb of 1. Mesolithic rock cut architecture of India not only female animals. reflects the cultural life of the times but also a fine z Mesolithic paintings at Bhimbetka and other sites aesthetic sense comparable to modern painting. also depict men and women, young and old. Critically evaluate this comment. (2015) v v v Early Stone Age 7  https://www.pdfnotes.co/ Neolithic and Chalcolithic 2 Culture NEOLITHIC AGE OR NEW STONE AGE: z It is as recent as 1000 BCE in some regions of south and eastern India. 7000 BC-1000 BC z The Neolithic Revolution, as defined by V. Gordon z Around 8000–6000 BCE, the first agricultural Childe, is a good indicator of its importance in villages in the world appeared. Sheep and goats prehistory. It introduced numerous advances, were among the first domesticated animals in West including: Asia, which was also an early centre for the farming z Shift to food-producing society: In a situation where of wheat and barley. animals and plants are not bound to their natural z The Mehrgarh excavations, which revealed evidence habitat, a working definition of a food-producing of the domestication of cattle, sheep, and goats as society is one that obtains at least half of its food well as the cultivation of wheat and barley, suggested requirements from domesticated animals and/or that Baluchistan in South Asia was an area of early plants for at least a portion of the year. agriculture.  Neolithic man farmed and grew fruits and grains like ragi and horse gramme (kulathi).  He raised sheep, goats, and cattle as pets. z Pottery: Communities throughout the Neolithic era first created pottery by hand, then with the use of a potter's wheel. Their ceramics featured mat- impressed, grey, and black burnished ware.  Therefore, it can be claimed that large-scale pottery first arose during this period. z Self-sufficient village groups began to emerge in the later Neolithic era when people began to settle down. They inhabited mud and reed-constructed circular and rectangular homes.  Additionally, they were skilled at weaving clothes, spinning cotton and wool, and building boats. Advancement to Neolithic Age z Neolithic technology advancements, including the creation of ground, pecked, and polished stone tools, as well as the beginning of food production, are attributed to this period. z Shifts in subsistence tactics were correlated with modifications in stone implements. z A unique form of human meddling in nature as well as a new development in the interaction between people, plants, and animals were highlighted by the domestication of plants and animals.  It involved the extermination of plants and animals from their natural habitats as well as the selective breeding and artificially induced raising of animals for human profit. z Around 8000–6000 BCE, the Neolithic age began z Age and sex-based division of labour: As civilization to develop in northern India. advanced, it became clear that more labour was  https://www.pdfnotes.co/ needed, therefore other non-kin groups were also z In the open areas between their homes, they used to supply labour. interred their dead. z New tools: Neolithic man introduced new techniques z The bodies were arranged in flexed (bent) for making stone tools, creating items like polished, positions in oval pits. The presence of red ochre on pecked, and ground stone tools. the bones frequently hints at some form of fertility  For creating tools, they used polished stones rituals. besides quartzite. The usage of celts was crucial z One of the graves included a copper bead. for handaxes that were polished and ground. Particularly intriguing are the occurrences of turquoise and lapis lazuli beads. Note: In the mid-region of Belan river valley of UP and z Agriculture evidence included hulled six-row barley Narmada river valley of MP, three consecutive stages and hulled two-row barley that was both wild and of lithic age: Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic had domesticated. been found one by one consistently. NEOLITHIC CULTURES Neolithic Culture in India Chalingal Burzahom z Generally speaking, the neolithic age is linked to food Sarai khola. Islamabad Srinagar Gufkaral Excavated Neolithic sites production, ceramics, and sedentary lifestyles. Some Kile gul mohammad Modern Towns of the neolithic traits found on the Indian subcontinent Quetta Mehrgarh can be traced back to the mesolithic era. Delhi z The development of domesticated animals and plants Karachi Chirand Sarutaru did not spell the end of the hunting and gathering way Gauhati Marakdola Daojali Patna of existence. INDIA hading Calcutta z Communities that engaged in agriculture and animal Barudih husbandry typically continued to hunt and gather Nagpur Kucha Bhubaneshwar BAY food. Bombay OF BENGAL z Early colonies in the subcontinent that produced food ARABIAN SEA Utnur Nagarjunakonda Andaman and nicobar islands have a varied regional trajectory and profile. Tekkalakoda Tardal Kodekal Maski Sanganakallu The food-producing neolithic culture originated from Kupgal Palavoy z Hallur Brahmagiri T.Narshipur Madras (INDIA) Hemmige Lakshadweep islands an earlier mesolithic era in some areas (for example, Paiyampalli the northern Vindhyas). (INDIA)  There is no mesolithic phase in some regions (such the north-west), and the oldest habitations Map not to scale there appear to be those of neolithic pastoralists INDIAN OCEAN and farmers. z The discovery of wild, transitional, and z Several locations in Balochistan show how semi- domesticated varieties of barley at the location nomadic pastoral life gave way to permanent demonstrates that Mehrgarh was a part of a vast agriculture. nuclear area of barley domestication and that z Mehrgarh is where the earliest and most north Balochistan was the natural habitat zone for comprehensive evidence is found. wild barley. z The Bolan valley, which is in the Kachi plain's northern z Hulled einkorn wheat, emmer wheat, and bare region, is where this site is situated. wheat grains have been domesticated. z People and animals must have travelled over this path z Mehrgarh in the Neolithic period provides convincing since very early times because the Bolan valley served proof of the change from animal domestication to as a vital link between the Indus plains and the hilly hunting. valleys of north Balochistan. z There is evidence of domesticated goats as well, z Thousands of microliths, many of which were and the shrinking size of sheep and cattle indicates based on blades, were part of the stone tools. that domestication of those animals was also taking z There were also a few ground Neolithic handaxes place. (celts) discovered. Some of the blades had thick z The site of Sarai Khola, located on the edge bitumen coatings that were glued into hardwood of the Potwar plateau in the northern section handles, suggesting that they may have been utilised of Pakistan's Punjab province, reveals neolithic as grain harvesting sickles. habitation from around the fourth millennium BCE. Neolithic and Chalcolithic Culture 9  https://www.pdfnotes.co/ z There were several bone points, as well as ground and cultivation of rice, which contrast with some of the polished stone celts, blades, and microliths. Toy carts Mesolithic characteristics like microlith blades and and terracotta wheels were also discovered. the range of heavier stone tools. z There were microliths, terracotta figurines of humped z Koldihwa and Mahagara (both in Allahabad district, bulls, beads made of stone, lapis lazuli, shell, and UP). Cultural continuity from the Neolithic to the Iron paste, artefacts made of shell and bone, and a few Age was seen in Koldihwa. Here, at neolithic levels, copper objects. rice remains and rice husk impressions embedded in z In Haryana's Fatehabad district, Bhirrana is a burnt clay fragments have been discovered. recently discovered archaeological site. People lived  The three types of pottery were all handmade and in pit homes that ranged in size from 230 to 340 cm came in net-marked or cord-marked, plain red, in diameter and 34 to 58 cm in depth. Along with and black-and-red versions. The most common housing pits, pits for industrial activities, sacrifice, shapes were deep bowls and storage jars. and garbage were also found. z Kunjhun is in the Son valley in Sidhi district of z The Vindhyan borders in southern Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh: The neolithic settlement here, where more than 40 neolithic sites have been discovered as a result of explorations in the Belan, which goes back to the 4th millennium BCE, yielded Adwa, Son, Rihand, Ganga, Lapari, and Paisuni rivers, wild and domesticated rice. Kunjhun seems to have were another early centre of agricultural-pastoral been a factory site specializing in the making of stone societies. artefacts.  Numerous excavated sites, including Koldihwa, z In the Kashmir valley, there are several neolithic Mahagara, Pachoh, and Indari, have Neolithic sites near Srinagar and between Baramulla and levels found. Anantnag. z In this region, a mature Mesolithic era gave rise to  Burzahom, one of the important excavated sites Neolithic culture. However, there are also significant in this region, is located on a terrace of karewa new traits like the domestication of cattle and the clay above the floodplain of the Jhelum river. NEOLITHIC STONE TOOLS, BURZAHOM BURNISHED GLOBULAR JAR WITH LONG NECK, BURZAHOM z Mud-plastered pit homes are one of Burzahom's  It's important to notice that the round/oval pit distinctive characteristics. chambers were discovered on the outside of the settlement while the square/rectangular ones  The majority of the pits were rounded or oval were located in the centre. in shape, becoming wider near the base and  Smaller storage pits with a diameter of 60 to 91 narrower at the top. cm were located next to the dwelling pits and  The pits contained charcoal, ash, pottery contained tools made of stone and bone as well as animal bones. fragments, and stone or clay hearths.  Other discoveries at Burzahom included  There were a few 1 m deep square and rectangular handcrafted, coarse pottery in shades of grey, red, pit chambers as well. brown, and buff. 10 Ancient India  https://www.pdfnotes.co/  The stone tools included oval and oblong stone The Life of Early Farmers axes, chisels, adzes, grinding stones, ring stones, z Neolithic societies are typically thought to have and mace heads. been relatively self-sufficient, with an equilibrium  Secondary burials and inhumation both were between food supply and population. employed. The bones in secondary burials  Depending on the resource capacity of the occasionally have red ochre applied to them. The environmental niche they lived in and their body was laid out flat during the primary burials. techniques of adaptation, the communities'  Humans were sometimes buried along with specific subsistence patterns would have differed. wild animals such as deer, wolf, ibex, nilgai, snow z Different tool types, ceramics, and housing types leopard, and pig, and domesticated animals such indicate different craft traditions and lifestyles. as cattle, buffalo, dog, sheep, and goat. z Divergent religious and cultural practices are  Pottery was among the artefacts, most of it reflected in burial traditions and potentially significant handmade. A few new shapes were seen, along cultic objects. with black burnished pottery that appeared to be premium ware. z A high-protein diet that was more diverse, balanced, and healthier for hunter-gatherers  A high-necked jar with a flaring rim, globular than for early farmers, whose diets tended to be body, and base is a recognizable type in the black high in carbs with a focus on cereals or root crops, burnished pottery. according to studies of nutrition and disease based  Hunting and fishing were important parts of the on an analysis of human bones. lives of the neolithic people of Burzahom.  People who were less active were also more z There doesn't appear to be any Neolithic sites susceptible to epidemics and contagious in the deltas of the Pennar, Krishna, or Godavari diseases. This may provide some insight for the rivers, with the exception of one near Pondicherry on the coast of Tamil Nadu. high prevalence of disease seen in the skeletal remains of some early farming cultures.  The oldest Neolithic villages were typically found on slopes and plateaus in the southern Deccan z Sedentary lifestyles and diets linked with plateau, where granite hills rise from the black agriculture would have resulted in less stress cotton soil. on pregnant women and more stable postpartum  The Budihal excavations demonstrated the conditions for mother and child. presence of a habitation site directly associated z High-carb diets have also been linked to shorter with ash mounds. birth intervals. z Although the neolithic stage is generally associated z The sum of all these elements would have led to with subsistence-level activities, there is evidence increased birth rates. of specialized crafts and long-distance exchange at  Sedentary lifestyles would have been less stressful sites such as Mehrgarh. Kunjhun and Ganeshwar on young children and elderly individuals, and indicate fairly well-developed craft traditions and site they might have extended life expectancy. specialization.  Because of these factors, the introduction of food production would eventually have resulted PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTION (PRELIMS) in an increase in population and changes in the 1. Consider the following pairs: (2021) distribution of ages within communities. Historical place: Well - known for z Larger groups of people would have had to develop 1. Burzahom : Rock -cut shrines new social norms and modes of interaction when 2. Chandra - ketugarh : Terracotta art they began coexisting in settled communities, ones that were distinct from those seen among bands of 3. Ganeshwar : Copper artefacts hunter-gatherers. Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched? z Internal age and sex distinctions must have been (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 made in the communities of the earliest farmers and (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3 pastoralists. Neolithic and Chalcolithic Culture 11  https://www.pdfnotes.co/ z Different home sizes and variations in the number CHALCOLITHIC AGE / COPPER-STONE and calibre of grave items at some locations imply AGE: 3500 BC-1000 BC the existence of social classes. z Stone and metal tools began to be used together for the first time during the Chalcolithic age. Copper was the first metal used, while bronze was also occasionally used. z The first metal age of India is called Chalcolithic Age. It was also called Stone-Copper Age. z Chalcolithic: Chalco + Lithic was derived from the Greek words "khalkos" + "líthos" which means "copper" and "stone" or Copper Age. z Chalcolithic cultures had grown in river valleys. Harappan culture is considered part of Chalcolithic culture. z Although it emerged in different regions of the country following the end of the bronze Harappa culture, the Chalcolithic stage is generally applicable to the settlements of the pre-Harappans. z Though it is possible to say that the majority of FEMALE FIGURINE, MEHRGARH Chalcolithic cultures are post-Harappan, some are Changes in Cultic and Belief Systems contemporaneous with Harappan civilisation and some with pre-Harappan cultures. z The domestication of animals and the cultivation of  Pre-Harappan Chalcolithic sites include Ganeshwar, plants must have boosted people's interest in magico- which is close to the Khetri Mines in Rajasthan, religious methods of fertility control. Kalibangan in Rajasthan, Banawali in Haryana, and z Mother Goddesses are the common name given Kot Diji in Sindh (Pakistan). to terracotta female figurines discovered at sites z The Chalcolithic inhabitants hunted deer and beginning in the Neolithic period, such as those in domesticated cows, sheep, goats, pigs, and the north-western zone. buffaloes. z Given that women gave birth, it is quite likely that z They consumed beef but disliked pigs and had no farming tribes associated women with fertility. experience with horses. z It's also conceivable that they revered representations z The fact that domesticated animals were killed for of fertility goddesses. food rather than milked for dairy products is quite z The Neolithic or Neolithic-chalcolithic era does not noteworthy. see the first intentional, standardised graves, although z They engaged in greater jhum cultivation or slash- they do become more prevalent. burn techniques. However, no site from this time  Such funerals reflect significance ascribed to the period has produced either a hoe or a plough. departed person's physical remains. z They used a variety of pottery, the most common z At Mehrgarh, the custom of smearing bodies with red of which was black and red pottery. It was created ochre before burial raises the possibility of a fertility on a potter's wheel and painted with a white-line ritual. pattern. z The interment of humans and animals together at Burzahom reflects a deep bond between the two The following traits characterize humans from species. the Chalcolithic period: z Different burial traditions connected with people z They typically reside in thatched buildings built of different grades might be seen as reflected in of mud bricks and are unfamiliar with burned brick. simple versus more ornate cemeteries. Their economy was based in the community. z The presence of food items in the burial goods z People in the Chalcolithic age were not familiar points to an afterlife belief. with writing. 12 Ancient India  https://www.pdfnotes.co/ z Their settlements were compact, with huts located z Numerous protohistoric cultures bear the close to one another. names of the places where they were first found. z People in the Chalcolithic era cooked their meals. Sometimes a pottery style serves as the name for an archaeological civilisation. z Earth goddess little clay sculptures have been discovered at Chalcolithic sites. The Mother Goddess  The fact that it is a diagnostic type does not suggest that this is the only pottery kind that can be found. was thus revered by them, it can be said. z Rajasthan's southeast was the home of the Ahar z Based on stylized bull terracotta from Malwa and civilization. Rajasthan, the bull was possibly their religious cult's symbol.  The Ahar or Banas culture have been identified in the Banas and Berach river systems, roughly z The Chalcolithic culture possessed skilled between Udaipur and Jaipur. coppersmiths. They were skilled stone masons and  Numerous copper items were present, including knew the art of melting copper. rings, bangles, antimony rods, and a knife blade. z They produced semi-precious stone beads made  Copper was melted, as shown by copper sheet of quartz crystal, carnelian, and steatite. and slag. z They were skilled weavers and spinners.  Balathal in Udaipur district is an important Ahar Chalcolithic Locations in India culture site. South-eastern Rajasthan, western M.P., western z The first location where the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura Maharashtra, as well as other regions of southern and culture was discovered was Jodhpura, which is eastern India, have all been identified to have Chalcolithic located on the Sahibi river's banks. villages.  Pottery created locally is often wheel-thrown, z Regional variations can be seen in the production and orange to red in colour, and has etched patterns. consumption of cereals as well as pottery. z Kayatha culture in Malwa region: The location of z The dead were interred in Maharashtra in a north- Kayastha in the Ujjain district, on the banks of the south direction, while in southern India they were Chhoti Kali Sindh, a tributary of the Kali Sindh, which interred in an east-west orientation. Fractional burial is in turn a tributary of the Chambal river, is where was used in eastern India. this culture derives its name. z Rajasthan's Banas Valley is home to Ahar (smelting  At Kayatha culture sites, pottery of three different and metallurgy, stone homes), as well as Gilund varieties has been discovered. The typical Kayatha (occasional use of charred bricks). pottery is a solid, robust piece made on a wheel. z Nevasa, Jorwe (non-Harappan culture), Navdatoli (almost all food grains were grown there), Daimabad  Early Harappan pottery and Kayatha ware are (largest Jorwe culture site in the Godavari valley, similar in some ways, and these two cultures renowned for the discovery of bronze artefacts), share a similar use of steatite microbeads. Songaon, Inamgaon (large mud houses with ovens and z The alluvial plains of north Bihar have a number of circular pit houses), and Nasik, Maharashtra are other Neolithic and Neolithic-Chalcolithic monuments. noteworthy locations.  Chirand, Senuar, Chechar-Kutubpur, Maner, z Neolithic-chalcolithic cultures, which combine and Taradih are the five that have undergone neolithic characteristics with the use of metal, excavation. are much more common than "pure neolithic" sites (mainly copper).  Neolithic Chirand produced pottery in various  There is now scant proof of a Neolithic or even colours, including red, grey, and black. Neolithic-Chalcolithic stage in other regions of the  Another item was red and black ware. Despite Indian subcontinent (such as Rajasthan). some turntable-produced pieces, the majority of z In the areas of Rajasthan, Malwa, and the northern the pottery was fashioned by hand. Deccan, the beginnings of settled life are associated  The Neolithic inhabitants of Chirand resided in with a chalcolithic rather than a neolithic phase. rammed-earth, round houses. Neolithic and Chalcolithic Culture 13  https://www.pdfnotes.co/ Chalcolithic Cultures Sites Ahara Culture Aahar (Rajasthan), balathal, Gilund etc. The distinctive feature is black and red ware. Kayatha Culture Located in Chambal and its tributaries, the sturdy red slipped ware with chocolate designs is main feature Malwa Culture Narmada & its tributaries in Gujarat. One of the largest Chalcolithic settlements. Savalda Culture Dhule district of Maharashtra. Prabhas & Rangpur Culture Both of them are derived from the Harappa culture. The polished red ware is the hallmark of this culture. IRON AGE (1000 BC- 500 BC) z The Chalcolithic age is followed by the Iron Age. z Iron is frequently referred to in the Vedas. z The Iron Age of the southern peninsula is often related to megalithic burials. Megalith means large stone. z The burial pits covered with these stones are extensively found in South India. z Important megalithic sites: Hallur and Maski in Karnataka, Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh and Adichchanallur in Tamil Nadu. v v v 14 Ancient India  https://www.pdfnotes.co/ 3 Harappan Civilization INTRODUCTIO