UPSC Wallah Books _ Ancient India PDF

 UPSC WALLAH ANCIENT INDIA COMPREHENSIVE LEARNING SERIES FOR PRELIMS AND MAINS EDITION: First Published By: Physicswallah Private Limited Physics Wallah Publication ISBN: 978-93-6034-023-0 Mobile App: Physics Wallah (Available on Play Store)...

 UPSC WALLAH ANCIENT INDIA COMPREHENSIVE LEARNING SERIES FOR PRELIMS AND MAINS EDITION: First Published By: Physicswallah Private Limited Physics Wallah Publication ISBN: 978-93-6034-023-0 Mobile App: Physics Wallah (Available on Play Store) Website: www.pw.live Youtube Channel: Physics Wallah - Alakh Pandey UPSC Wallah UPSC Wallah - Hindi Medium PSC Wallah - UP Bihar MPSC Wallah Email: [email protected] Rights All rights are reserved with the Publisher. No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission from the author or publisher. In the interest of the student community: Circulation of soft copy of Book(s) in PDF or other equivalent format(s) through any social media channels, emails, etc. or any other channels through mobiles, laptops or desktop is a criminal offense. Anybody circulating, downloading, or storing, a soft copy of the book on his device(s) is in breach of the Copyright Act. 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(This Book shall only be used for educational purposes.)  PREFACE A highly skilled professional team of PW ONLY IAS works arduously to ensure that the students receive the best content for the UPSC exams. A plethora of UPSC Study Material is available in the market but PW ONLY IAS professionals are continuously working to provide the supreme quality study material for our UPSC students. From the beginning, the whole content team comprising Content Creators, Reviewers, DTP operators, Proofreaders and others are involved in shaping the material to their best knowledge and experience to produce powerful content for the students. Faculties have adopted a new style of presenting the content in easy-to-understand language and have provided the team with their guidance and supervision throughout the creation of this book. PW ONLY IAS strongly believes in conceptual and fun-based learning. PW ONLY IAS provides highly exam-oriented content to bring quality and clarity to the students. This book adopts a multi-faceted approach to master and understanding the concepts by having a rich diversity of questions asked in the examination and equip the students with the knowledge for this competitive exam. The main objective of the study material is to provide short, crisp, concise and high-quality content to our students. BOOK FEATURES Holistic coverage of topics, strictly as per exam syllabus One-stop solution for subject wise coverage Intensive use of Maps, Diagrams, Flowcharts and Timelines for quick understanding and revision Thinking Points in and as ‘Ignite Your Mind’ Updated with latest current affairs and data  CONTENTS 1. Early Ancient India 1-14 2. Harappan Civilization  15-27 3. The Vedic Period (c. 1500 BCE - 500 BCE)  28-41 4. Mahajanapadas (c. 600 BCE - 300 BCE) 42-54 5. Buddhism 55-70 6. Jainism and Ajivikas 71-78 7. Mauryan Empire (324 - 187 BCE) 79-94 8. Developments During 200 BCE - 300 CE 95-106 9. The Satavahanas 107-114 10. Sangam Age 115-123 11. The Guptas 124-138 12. The Vakatakas of The Deccan 139-142 13. Age of Regional Configuration 143-161 14. Ancient History Chronology 162-170  Early Ancient India 1 ‰ The Vikrama Era (58 BC) was traditionally founded by INTRODUCTION a king called Vikramaditya, who drove the Sakas out of The term ‘history’ finds its origins in the Greek word Ujjain and founded the era to celebrate the victory. ‘historia,’ which means “inquiry” or “knowledge acquired by ‰ The Saka Era (78 AD) was, according to tradition, investigation.” It encompasses the examination of the past, founded by a Saka King who occupied Ujjain 137 years shedding light on significant events that have shaped and after Vikramaditya. Kanishka may have founded this era. influenced human experiences. History is categorized into ‰ The Kalachuri Era (248 AD) was perhaps founded by a pre-history, proto-history, and history. Prehistory pertains to small Traikutakas (Trikuta) dynasty. events occurring before the invention of writing, commonly ‰ The Gupta Era (320 AD) was probably founded by represented by the three Stone Ages. Defining proto-history Chandra Gupta I. poses challenges as it holds various connotations. Generally, ‰ The Harsha Era (606 AD) was founded by Harshavardhana it refers to the period between prehistory and history, of Kannauj and was popular in Northern India for a characterized by the absence of developed writing within a century or two after his death. culture or civilization. Although undeciphered, the script of ‰ The Lakshmana Era of Bengal (1119 AD): It is said to the Harappan civilization is included in proto-history due to have been founded by King Lakshmana Sena. its mention in Mesopotamian writings. Similarly, the Vedic civilization from c. 1500–600 BCE, with INDIAN HISTORY an oral literary tradition but lacking written records, is considered a part of proto-history. Archaeologists categorize ‰ It is the river Indus which gave India its name. The Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures as part of protohistory. Indians knew this river as Sindhu, and the Persians, who found difficulty in pronouncing the initial S, called it The study of the past after the advent of writing and Hindu. From Persia, the word passed to Greece, where the exploration of literate societies through written and the whole of India became known by the name of the archaeological sources form the domain of history. western river. ‰ The historical and cultural identity of human settlements ‰ The ancient Indians knew their subcontinent as in India extends back to prehistoric times. Jambudvipa (the continent of the Jambu tree) or ‰ Robert Bruce Foote played a crucial role in the early Bharatavarsha (the land of the sons of Bharata, a comprehensive study of Indian prehistory, discovering legendary emperor). With the Muslim invasion, the the Pallavaram handaxe, perhaps the first Paleolithic Persian name returned in the form of ‘Hindustan’ and tool in India. those of its inhabitants who followed the old religion ‰ Sir Mortimer Wheeler also made significant contributions, became known as ‘Hindu’. enhancing our understanding of prehistoric cultures in ‰ The ancient civilisation of India differs from those of India. Egypt, Mesopotamia and Greece, in that its traditions ‰ The Indian Stone Age is classified into three categories have been preserved without a breakdown to the present based on geological age, stone tool types, and subsistence day. India and China have the oldest continuous cultural base: traditions in the world. ‰ William Jones’s initiative led to the founding of the Old Stone Age Palaeolithic Age 5,00,000−10,000 BCE Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1784, with Jones himself as Late Stone Age Mesolithic Age 10,000−6000 BCE President. He translated Shakuntala, Gita Govinda and New Stone Age Neolithic Age 6,000−1000 BCE the law book of Manu into English. ‰ Charles Wilkins translated the Bhagavad Gita and ERAS Hitopadesa into English. ‰ Max Muller, who had a Sanskrit name, Moksha Mula, ‰ The Era of the Kaliyuga (3102 BC) was usually used for wrote two books- “India, What Can It Teach Us?” and religious dates and rarely for political events. “Biography of Words and Home of the Aryas”. Max ‰ The Buddha Era (544 BC) was in use in Ceylon from an Muller also edited ‘The Rig Veda’ and also another book uncertain date. Often used for religious purposes. called ‘Sacred Books of the East’. ‰ James Prinsep interpreted for the first time the earliest ‰ Based on this, it is proposed that agriculture existed in Brahmi script and was able to read the edicts of the great Rajasthan and Kashmir as early as 6000 BC. The scientific emperor Ashoka. analysis of metal artefacts reveals their nature and ‰ In 1862, Alexander Cunningham was appointed to the components, helping to locate the source of the metals. post of Archaeological Surveyor of India. Cunningham was known as the father of Indian archaeology. Literary Sources ‰ Archaeology is the science which enables us to dig the A. Vedic Period (1500 BC to 600 BC) old mounds systematically, in successive layers, to form Information about the Vedic period comes from Vedic an idea of the material life of the people. literature. Scholars have divided the Vedic period into the early Vedic period and the later Vedic period. CONSTRUCTION OF The word ‘Veda’ comes from the root ‘vid’, i.e., to know. It is INDIAN HISTORY specifically applied to a branch of literature considered to be Shruti (which can be heard) and have been trsnsmitted orally for many centuries. Methods for Construction of Indian History ‰ Rig Veda: The Rig Veda means, the Veda of praise. It is Various dating methods play a crucial role in archaeological purely a religious work and most of the hymns are all investigations, providing insights into the chronology and invocations of the Gods. cultural evolution of ancient civilizations. These methods are: ‰ Sama Veda: It consists of hymns taken from the Rig Veda ‰ Radiocarbon Dating Method: This method helps in and set to tune for singing. It is called the ‘book of chants’ measuring the decay of carbon in organic materials over time. By analyzing the loss of carbon, archaeologists and the origins of Indian music are traced to it. can estimate the age of the artefacts or remains being ‰ Yajur Veda: It is the Veda of formulae consisting of studied. various mantras for recitation and rules to be observed ‰ Dendrochronology: This dating technique involves at the time of sacrifice. counting the number of tree rings in wood. The The two royal ceremonies of ‘Rajasuya’ and ‘Vajpeya’ annual growth rings in trees serve as a natural timestamp, are mentioned for the first time in this Veda. allowing researchers to establish a timeline for events or ‰ Atharva Veda: It was compiled by the sage Atharva, a artefacts associated with the wooden materials. non-Aryan. It is the Veda of formulae, charms and spells to ward off evils and diseases. It throws light on the beliefs and practices of the non-Aryans. IGNITE YOUR MIND ‰ Brahmanas: The Brahmanas are prose commentaries on the four Vedas. The subject matter is ritual. There are a What are the methods employed by archaeologists total of 18 Brahmanas, the most important of which is to date ancient sculptures and artefacts? the Satapatha Brahmana. ‰ Aranyakas: These are forest books which were composed Sources of Construction of Indian History in the forest and were meant for study in the forest. They deal with mysticism, the symbolism of sacrifice and Material Remains priestly philosophy. ‰ Numerous material remnants left by ancient Indians, ‰ Upanishads: The word Upanishad means ‘to be seated such as stone temples in South India and brick at the feet of the Guru to receive the teaching’. There monasteries, serve as reminders of their construction are a total of 108 Upanishads, of which 13 are most activities. However, a significant portion of these prominent. The Upanishads dwell on the ‘Atman’ and remains are concealed in scattered mounds throughout ‘Brahman’, and focus a lot on the philosophy about life, the country. universe, self, body sacrifice, etc. ‰ In the arid climates of western Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, and northwestern India, antiquities are better preserved. B. Pre-Mauryan Age Contrastingly, in the humid regions of the middle Gangetic Brahminical Literature: basin and deltaic areas, implements suffer from corrosion, ‰ It consisted of the ‘Vedangas’ or the limbs of the Vedas, and detecting mud structures becomes challenging. whose study was necessary to understand the Vedas ‰ Exploration has unveiled cities established around 2500 BC properly. The Vedangas were written in the form of in northwestern India. The recovered material undergoes ‘Sutras’ ,i.e., a condensed prose style intended for scientific examination, such as radiocarbon dating which memorization. The Kalpa sutras are divided into three establishes the time period of materials remaining. classes: Srautasutra, Grihyasutras, Dharmasutras Climate and vegetation history is deduced from residue ‰ Four minor Vedas called ‘Upavedas’ came to be written examination, notably through pollen analysis. based on the Vedic literature. 2 Ancient India ‰ The Upvedas are the following: (2) Ptolemy’s Geography: Written in Greek in about Rigveda - Ayurveda 150 AD. It also mentions the flourishing trade between Samaveda - Gandharva veda India and the Roman Empire in the post-Mauryan period. Yajurveda - Dhanurveda Mention is made about various Indian ports. Atharvaveda - Shilpa Veda (3) Pliny’s Naturalis Historia: The book is written in Latin. Buddhist literature: Pliny offered a lot of detail about India, which isn’t always correct, but his views do more than simply present the lt consists of the Pali canon in the form of three pitakas: basic bones of history, and help us get a sense of how Vinaypitaka, Abhidhammapitaka, and Suttapitaka. intimately Indian culture and trade were being recognised. Jain Literature: It was written in Prakrit. Earlier in Jain literature, there was E. Sources in the Gupta Period a set of 14 books called Purvas. They are now lost. 12 Angas Secular Literature were written, based on 14 Purvas. (a) Kalidas: He was the court poet of Chandragupta Foreign Authors: Vikramaditya II. He was a great poet and dramatist. 1. Herodotus wrote ‘Historica’. It talks about the trade Considered as Shakespeare of the East. His works include: relations of India with Persia. Abhijanasakuntalam: Love Story of King Dushyanta 2. Aristobolus wrote ‘History of the war’. He came to India and Shakuntala, whose son Bharatha became a along with Alexander. famous ruler. William Jones translated this book into English and it filled the romantic imagination of C. Mauryan Period (321-184 BC) Europe. ‰ Kautilya’s Arthasastra: It is the most important literary Malvikagnimitram: It is the Sanskrit play written source of the Mauryan period. It is a book on political by Kalidasa in the 5th-century CE. It narrates the economy. It was written in Sanskrit. love story of King Agnimitra, the Shunga Emperor ‰ Megasthenes’s Indica: Megasthenes was the Greek at Vidisha. Agnimitra was the son of Pushyamitra ambassador of Selucus Nikator to the court of Shunga, the founder of the Sunga dynasty. Chandragupta Maurya. Reghuvamsa: Speaks of these found victories of ‰ Indian Buddhist Literature: Rama, and may indirectly refer to some Gupta Jatakas reveal a general picture of socio-economic conquests. conditions of the Mauryan period. Kumarasambhav: Deals with the courtship of Shiva Digha Nikaya helps in determining the influence of and Parvati and the birth of their son Skanda. Buddhist ideas on Mauryan polity. Meghadutam: Lyrical poem containing the message ‰ Ceylonese Chronicles: Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa from the love-lon yaksha to his wife, pining across the ‰ Tibetan Buddhist Sources: Books such as Ashokavadana northern mountains in Alaka. and Divyavadana (b) Sudraka: Wrote the Mrichchakatika (the little clay cart), D. Post Mauryan Period the plot of which centres around the love of a poor Brahmana Charudatta for the wealthy, beautiful and 1. Sangam period: Sangam literature was composed cultured courtesan Vasantasena. of three assemblies and was poetic.It was produced over three to four centuries. Prominent works include (c) Visakhadatta: Wrote Mudrarakshasa, which deals with Ettutogai, patupattu, Padinenkilkanakku, Silappadikaram, the strategies of Kautilya, and mentions Chandragupta Manimegalai, and Sivaga Sindamani. Maurya as being of low origin. Visakhadatta also wrote Devichandraguptam, which is the story of Chandragupta 2. Patanjali, a great grammarian wrote the Sanskrit book II’s accession to the throne after killing Basana (the Saka ‘Mahabhasya’ in the 2nd century BC. king), Ramagupta (Chandragupta II’s brother) and his 3. Manu, in the around the time period between 2nd subsequent marriage to Dhruvadevi. century BC to 3rd Century AD written the book ‘Manusmriti’, which is the most famous dharmashastra. (d) Bhasa: Thirteen plays written by Bhasa belong to this period, the most famous of which is Svapnavasavadattam. 4. In the post-Mauryan period Asvaghosha wrote Buddacharita, Saundarananda, Sariputraprakarana, (e) Magha: Wrote Sisupalvadh and Bhattikavya. Vajrosuchi, Sraddhotpada, and Gandistotragatha. (f) Kamandaka: Wrote Nitisara belonging to Chandragupta’s 5. Foreigners’ books in the post-Mauryan period relevant period, is the Gupta equivalent of Kautiluya’s to India: Arthashastra. (1) Periplus of the Erythrean Sea: Written in Greek by an (g) Vajjika: Wrote Kaumudimahotsava. It talks about the anonymous writer between 80 and 115 A.D. It describes accession of Chandragupta I to the throne. the Roman trade in the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, and the (h) Amarsimha: Wrote Amarkosha, which is a dictionary in Indian Ocean. Mention is made about various Indian ports. Sanskrit. Early Ancient India 3 (i) Vatsyayana: Wrote Kamasutra, which is the first ‰ Metal and Coinage as Economic Indicators: The type systematic enunciation of the art of love. of metal used in coins and their abundance serve as Scientific Literature Consisted of the works of indicators of the economic prosperity within a kingdom. (a) Aryabhatta: In the book Suryasiddhanta, Aryabhatta The prevalence and composition of coins shed light examines and explains the true cause of the solar and on the level of trade, the vibrancy of commerce, and lunar eclipses. His calculation of the size of the earth is the overall wealth of a given region during a particular very close to the modem estimation. He was the first period. Indian astronomer to discover and declare that the Few coins were issued by the guild of merchants earth rotates around its axis. He was also the author of and goldsmiths, which shows that coins helped in Aryabhattiyam, which deals with arithmetic, geometry, transactions on a large scale and contributed to algebra and trigonometry. trade. For Example, in post-Mauryan times, coins (b) Varahamihira: His book ‘Brihatsamhita’ is an were made up of lead, biotin, copper, bronze, silver, encyclopaedia of astronomy, botany, physical geography and gold, etc., shows that trade and commerce and natural history. His other works are Pancha flourished. Siddhantika, Brihat Jataka etc. Also, the examination of coins from the post-Gupta Coins era reveals a decline in trade and commerce. Only a ‰ Numismatics: In the realm of numismatics, coins serve sparse collection of coins from this period provides as valuable artefacts for study. Ancient Indian currency evidence of an economic downturn. This scarcity of was issued in the form of coins, not paper, because numismatic evidence points to a broader historical paper came into use during the 14th century. Early coins context marked by economic challenges and a shift in featured minimal symbols; however, as time progressed, the prevailing trade dynamics. they evolved to bear inscriptions of kings, issuers (guilds/ merchants), gods, or dates. This transition in coinage aids in the reconstruction of religious, cultural, and economic IGNITE YOUR MIND histories, providing a chronological framework. ‰ Significance of Coins: The inclusion of names of kings or Contrast the characteristics of coinage in ancient issuers, references to deities, and chronological markers India with that of contemporary India. Explore on coins from later periods offers a rich source for the distinctions between these two sets of coins understanding historical narratives. These inscriptions concerning their materials, symbols, designs, and contribute to unravelling the intricate tapestry of geometric features. religious practices, cultural evolution, and economic dynamics. Inscriptions ‰ Materials used for Inscriptions: Inscriptions were carved on various surfaces, including seals, stone pillars, rocks, copper plates, temple walls, and images. During the earlier centuries of the Christian era, copper plates were commonly used for inscriptions. Fig. 1.1: Ancient Coins In South India, there was a shift towards using stone For Examples: The coins of Menander and Strabo-1 on a large scale for inscriptions over time. show them passing through different stages of life, Temples played a significant role as locations for suggesting their long reigns. inscriptions, with a large number of records being ‰ Historical Insights from Coin Transactions: Beyond engraved on temple walls to serve as permanent their intrinsic value, coins also act as silent witnesses records. to the dynamics of local and cross-border transactions. ‰ Epigraphy and Palaeography - Unveiling Ancient Writings: By examining the coins utilized in trade, historians can The field of epigraphy delves into the study of inscriptions, provide insights into the ruling dynasties of the time and while palaeography focuses on deciphering ancient writings the geographical extent of their dominion. found in inscriptions and other historical records. Together, For example, the punch-marked coins of the Mauryan Empire, with symbols representing various regions, these disciplines serve as crucial tools for unravelling the demonstrate the vast territorial extent of the Mauryan secrets embedded in the written remnants of the past. dominion in ancient India. These coins, found in ‰ Role of Inscriptions in Communication: Inscriptions different parts of the Indian subcontinent, serve as played a pivotal role in communicating vital information, indicators of the empire’s administrative reach. particularly royal decrees and decisions related to social, 4 Ancient India  religious, and administrative matters. A prominent ‰ Yijing (c. 635 – 713 CE): Yijing, also known as, I Ching, was example is found in the Ashokan inscriptions, where a Chinese Buddhist monk and traveller. His work “Record engraved edicts conveyed the will of the ruler to both of the Buddhist Countries” provides insights into Indian officials and the general populace. Buddhism during the 7th century. Greek Accounts: Ashoka’s Inscriptions ‰ Megasthenes (c. 350 – 290 BCE): Megasthenes was an The Ashokan inscriptions ambassador of Seleucus I Nicator and wrote the “Indica,” stand as examples of offering valuable insights into ancient Indian society how ancient rulers during the Maurya Empire. utilized this medium ‰ Alexander the Great (356 – 323 BCE): Alexander’s to disseminate their invasion of the Indian subcontinent in 326 BCE had a edicts. These inscriptions profound impact on the region. Although his stay was were instrumental brief, his campaigns and interactions with Indian leaders in conveying royal were documented by Greek historians like Arrian. orders that shaped Fig. 1.2: Ashokan Inscriptions the socio-religious and ‰ Strabo (64/63 BCE – c. 24 CE): Strabo, a Greek geographer administrative landscape of the time. The engraved and historian, wrote extensively about India in his work messages served as a direct line of communication from “Geographica,” compiling information from earlier Greek the ruler to those responsible for implementing these accounts. decisions and, by extension, to the broader population. Persian Accounts: ‰ Darius I (550 – 486 BCE): Although Darius I did not ‰ Inscriptions as Historical Artifacts: Beyond their personally visit India, his empire, the Achaemenid communicative function, inscriptions also serve as Empire, extended its influence to the northwest regions invaluable historical artefacts. Through epigraphic and of the Indian subcontinent. The Behistun Inscription, palaeographic analysis, scholars gain insights into the authored by Darius, mentions the Persian control over nuances of language, script, and the societal norms parts of the Indian territory. prevalent during the period in which these inscriptions ‰ Al-Biruni (973 – 1048 CE): Al-Biruni was a Persian scholar were created. who made significant contributions to the understanding ‰ Preservation of Administrative Legacy: The inscribed of Indian culture, science, and philosophy during his visit orders and decisions not only had immediate to India in the 11th century. relevance but also contributed to the preservation of an administrative legacy. Inscriptions became Archaeological Excavations enduring records of governance, allowing subsequent In archaeological excavations, both vertical and horizontal generations to trace the evolution of social, religious, approaches are employed to gather comprehensive and administrative structures through the meticulous information. study of ancient writings. ‰ Vertical Excavations: It involves digging downwards, layer by layer, providing a chronological sequence of Foreigners’ Accounts material culture. This method allows researchers to Accounts of foreigners, encompassing Greeks, Romans, understand the temporal progression of human activities and Chinese individuals who played varied roles as official and the development of civilizations over time. historians, diplomats, pilgrims, and navigators/explorers. ‰ Horizontal Excavations: It entails digging laterally, Their perspectives provide a unique lens through which we offering a complete view of a particular culture within a can explore the interactions and exchanges between distant specific layer. This approach provides a detailed snapshot cultures. of a specific period, offering insights into the artefacts, Chinese Accounts: structures, and daily life of the people associated with that culture. Together, these dating methods and ‰ Faxian ( Fa-hien) (c. 337 – c. 422 CE): Faxian was a excavation techniques contribute to constructing a Chinese Buddhist monk who travelled to India in the 5th nuanced understanding of the past and its various facets. century and documented his pilgrimage in the “Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms.” ‰ Xuanzang (c. 602 – 664 CE): Xuanzang’s ( Hiuen-Tsang) IGNITE YOUR MIND extensive travels in India during the 7th century are recorded in “Great Tang Records on the Western What factors do you believe attracted numerous Regions.” His accounts are invaluable for understanding foreigners from diverse regions to visit ancient India? the socio-religious landscape of ancient India. Early Ancient India 5  Some of the Important Features of Lower Palaeolithic PALAEOLITHIC AGE (HUNTERS ‰ Tool Technology: The hallmark of the Early or Lower AND FOOD GATHERERS) Palaeolithic period is the utilization of primitive stone tools such as hand axes, choppers, and cleavers. These The Palaeolithic Age, the earliest phase of the Stone Age, tools were primarily employed for essential activities like emerged during the Pleistocene epoch, commonly known chopping, digging, and skinning. as the Ice Age. This era was widespread across almost all regions of India, except for the alluvial plains along the Indus ‰ Geographical Distribution: Artifacts from the Early Palaeolithic era have been unearthed in various locations, and Ganga rivers. including the Sohan river valleys (now in Pakistan), Kashmir, Thar Desert, Hiran Valley (Gujarat), rock shelters of Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh), Athirampakkam, Pallavaram and Gudiyam near Chennai, Hunsgi valley and Isampur in Karnataka, and the Belan Valley in Mirzapur (Uttar Pradesh). ‰ Period: The Early Palaeolithic period extends from approximately 500,000 BCE to 50,000 BCE, encapsulating a substantial portion of the Ice Age. This prolonged duration signifies a considerable period characterized by specific cultural and technological traits. Fig. 1.3: Palaeolithic Tools ‰ Functional Usage of Tools: Hand axes, choppers, and cleavers from this period were instrumental in performing Features of Palaeolithic Age various tasks essential for survival. They served not only ‰ The Palaeolithic inhabitants of India are identified as as cutting implements but also as tools for digging and belonging to the Negrito race, residing in caves and rock skinning, showcasing the adaptability and versatility of shelters. early human tool technology. ‰ Primarily food gatherers, they sustained themselves ‰ Industries of Palaeolithic Cultures: The Paleolithic through hunting and collecting wild fruits and vegetables. cultures’ industries are categorized into the Early, ‰ Their lifestyle lacked knowledge of agriculture, Middle, and Late Acheulean Industries. Early Acheulean construction, pottery, and metalwork. The understanding tools encompass polyhedron spheroids, hand axes, of fire came to them only in later stages. cleavers, and flake tools. During the Acheulean Stage of the early Paleolithic Period, which began between 1.7 ‰ Throughout this period, individuals utilized tools million and 1.5 million years ago and lasted until 250,000 crafted from unpolished and undressed raw stones, to 200,000 years ago, the presence of good stone tools predominantly hand axes, cleavers, choppers, blades, were probably an important determining factor in the bruins, and scrapers. distribution of early humans. ‰ These stone tools were fashioned from a robust rock ‰ Ice Age Context: The Lower Palaeolithic era encompasses known as ‘quartzite,’ the Palaeolithic people in India are a substantial part of the Ice Age (dating back approximately also referred to as ‘Quartzite men.’ 2.6 million years ago to around 300,000 years ago), indicating the challenges and adaptations required for The Palaeolithic Age is Divided into three survival in a climatically dynamic environment. The tools Phases According to The Nature of Stone developed during this period reflect the resourcefulness Tools Used and ingenuity of early humans as they coped with the ‰ Early or Lower Palaeolithic challenges posed by the glacial conditions. ‰ Middle Palaeolithic Middle Palaeolithic ‰ Later or Upper Palaeolithic The Middle Palaeolithic, also known as the Middle Stone Let’s discuss in detail these three stages. Age, is a significant archaeological period that falls within the broader epoch of the Palaeolithic era. This era is characterized Early or Lower Palaeolithic by the continued development of stone tool technologies During the Lower Palaeolithic cultural phase, the human and the presence of anatomically modern Homo sapiens. The ancestor species Homo erectus is believed to have lived in Middle Palaeolithic extends roughly from around 300,000 India. The first Paleolithic tools were identified at the site of years ago to 30,000 years ago, bridging the gap between the Pallavaram near Chennai by Robert Bruce Foote in 1863. He Lower Palaeolithic and the Upper Palaeolithic. found many pre-historic sites when he extensively surveyed ‰ Tool Technology Evolution: The Middle Palaeolithic different parts of South India. Since then, numerous Paleolithic period is characterized by the evolution of stone tools sites have been identified and excavated all over India. made predominantly from flakes. This technological 6 Ancient India  shift includes the development of tools such as scrapers, indicate the widespread presence and cultural diversity borers, points, and bladelike implements, showcasing of Late Palaeolithic communities. advancements in craftsmanship and functionality. ‰ Bone Tools in Specific Locations: Bone tools are identified ‰ Geographical Distribution: Archaeological evidence from primarily at cave sites in Kurnool and Muchchatla the Middle Palaeolithic is discovered in diverse locations, Chintamani Gavi in Andhra Pradesh. The selective including the Soan, Narmada, and Tungabhadra river occurrence of bone tools at these sites suggests unique valleys, the Potwar plateau (located between the cultural practices or technological preferences in specific Indus and Jhelum rivers), and the Sanghao Cave near geographic contexts. Peshawar, Pakistan. These findings underscore the ‰ Period: The Late Paleolithic period spans from widespread presence of Middle Palaeolithic cultures. approximately 40,000 BCE to 10,000 BCE, representing ‰ Period: The Middle Palaeolithic period is estimated to a substantial duration during the transition from have occurred between 50,000 BCE and 40,000 BCE. This the Paleolithic to the Mesolithic era. This period is timeframe represents a continuation of human cultural characterized by dynamic cultural and climatic changes. evolution during a dynamic period of prehistory. ‰ Appearance of Homo Sapiens: Homo sapiens, the ‰ Geographical Sites of Significance: The identification of anatomically modern human species, first appeared at Middle Palaeolithic artifacts in specific regions, such as the end of the Late Paleolithic phase. This marks a critical the river valleys of Soan, Narmada, and Tungabhadra, juncture in human evolution, signifying the dominance as well as the Potwar plateau and Sanghao Cave, of Homo sapiens as the prevalent species on Earth. contributes to our understanding of human habitation ‰ Climatic Context: The Late Paleolithic period coincides patterns and resource utilization during this period. with the last phase of the Ice Age, during which the climate experienced a shift towards warmer and less Additional Information: humid conditions. This climatic transformation likely Nevasan Industry Discovery: influenced the strategies for survival and adaptation The Nevasan industry, a term coined by H.D. Sankalia in adopted by Late Paleolithic human communities. 1960, is associated with the Middle Palaeolithic. It was IMPORTANT PALEOLITHIC SITES named after the Nevasa site in Maharashtra. This industry refers to the distinctive technological characteristics Soan Valley and Potwar Plateau: Located in northwest and tool types identified during this period, providing India, the Soan Valley and Potwar Plateau are significant archaeological sites associated with the Paleolithic period. a framework for understanding the material culture of These regions have yielded valuable insights into early human Middle Palaeolithic communities. habitation and tool usage. ‰ Continued Human Adaptation: The Middle Palaeolithic Siwalik Hills: The Siwalik Hills in northern India are renowned era represents a stage in human prehistory marked by for their rich deposits of Paleolithic artefacts. These hills have continued adaptation and innovation in tool technology. provided a treasure trove of evidence, contributing to our The tools crafted during this period reflect the changing understanding of human evolution and cultural development needs and challenges faced by early human communities in the region. as they navigated diverse environments. Bhimbetka, Madhya Pradesh: Bhimbetka, situated in Madhya Pradesh, is a UNESCO World Heritage site known for its rock Later or Upper Palaeolithic shelters containing some of the earliest evidence of human The Later or Upper Palaeolithic period followed the earlier Lower occupation in the Indian subcontinent. The site boasts a vast Palaeolithic era. This epoch witnessed notable advancements array of rock art and Paleolithic tools. in human cultural and technological development. It is Adamgarh Hill, Narmada Valley: Adamgarh Hill in the Narmada characterized by several key features, including more Valley is another notable Paleolithic site. Archaeological sophisticated stone tools, the emergence of art and symbolic excavations at this location have revealed artefacts that expression, and changes in subsistence strategies. provide insights into the technological and cultural aspects of ‰ Tool Innovation: The Late or Upper Palaeolithic period early human societies. is distinguished by the emergence of advanced tools, Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh: Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh is including parallel-sided blades, bruins, and, in some recognized as an important site, particularly for the discovery instances, the use of bone tools. These technological of bone tools. The archaeological findings at Kurnool advancements mark a significant progression in the contribute to our understanding of the diversity of tool sophistication of tool craftsmanship. technologies during different phases of the Paleolithic period. ‰ Geographical Distribution: Archaeological evidence Attirampakkam, near Chennai: Attirampakkam, located near from the Late Palaeolithic is dispersed across various Chennai, is a significant Paleolithic site that has yielded stone regions, encompassing Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, tools and other artifacts. The site’s archaeological significance Maharashtra, Central Madhya Pradesh, Southern Uttar lies in its role as a key location for understanding the cultural Pradesh, and the Chota Nagpur Plateau. These findings evolution of early humans in southern India. Early Ancient India 7 Significant Features of The Paleolithic geometric and non-geometric shapes, became characteristic Hunter-Gatherers are as Follows tools of this era. They served not only as standalone tools ‰ Hunter-Gatherer Lifestyle: Paleolithic communities but also as components for composite tools, including were predominantly hunter-gatherer societies, relying spearheads, arrowheads, and sickles, affixed to wooden or on hunting, fishing, and gathering of wild plants for bone handles. sustenance. This lifestyle was essential for their survival during a time when agriculture had not yet been established. ‰ Stone Tools and Large Pebbles for Hunting: Stone tools were integral to the Paleolithic tool. These early humans utilized tools crafted from hard rocks, such as quartzite, for various purposes. Large pebbles were employed as tools for hunting, demonstrating the resourcefulness and adaptability Fig. 1.4: Mesolithic Fig. 1.5: Bhimbetka Cave of Paleolithic communities in their pursuit of food. Tools Painting ‰ Use of Quartzite for Stone Implements: Quartzite, a durable and hard rock, was a commonly used material Several notable aspects of the Mesolithic Age for crafting stone implements during the Paleolithic ‰ The Mesolithic Age had the absence of pottery at period. The choice of quartzite as a raw material for tools most sites, but it is found at Langhnaj in Gujarat and reflects the practical understanding of early humans in the Kaimur region of Mirzapur (Uttar Pradesh). regarding the importance of using sturdy materials for ‰ The last phase of this age marked the commencement their implements. of plant cultivation. ‰ Adaptation to Environmental Challenges: The use of ‰ The Mesolithic era introduced rock art in prehistory, stone tools and large pebbles for hunting indicates with the first rock paintings in India discovered at the adaptability of Paleolithic communities to their Sohagi Ghat (Kaimur Hills, UP) in 1867. environmental challenges. These tools were essential ‰ Mesolithic rock art sites have been identified across for procuring food, crafting shelter, and addressing India, with a concentrated presence in Central India, various daily needs in a dynamic and often harsh natural including the Bhimbetka Caves, Kharwar, Jaora, environment. and Kathotia (Madhya Pradesh), Sundargarh and ‰ Technological Innovation: The crafting and use of stone Sambalpur (Orissa), and Ezhuthu Guha (Kerala). tools represented a significant leap in technological Most Mesolithic rock art depicts scenes dominated innovation for Paleolithic societies. These tools were not by animals, with a notable absence of depictions of only crucial for hunting but also served various functions snakes. in daily life, showcasing the cognitive abilities and problem-solving skills of early humans. IMPORTANT MESOLITHIC SITES ‰ Survival Strategies: The reliance on hunting and gathering Langhanj, Gujarat: Langhanj in Gujarat is an important as the primary means of subsistence reflects the survival Mesolithic site, contributing to our understanding of the cultural strategies developed by Paleolithic communities. The use and technological developments during this transitional period between the Paleolithic and Neolithic eras. of stone tools and large pebbles was intricately linked to their ability to secure food resources and navigate the Adamgarh, Madhya Pradesh: Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh challenges of their surroundings. is a significant Mesolithic site known for archaeological findings that shed light on the lifestyle and activities of Mesolithic communities. It is also noteworthy for providing early evidence MESOLITHIC AGE of animal domestication. (HUNTERS AND HERDERS) Bagor, Rajasthan: Bagor in Rajasthan, situated on the River Kothari, stands out as one of the largest and best-documented The Mesolithic Age signifies an intermediate phase within Mesolithic sites in India. It provides valuable insights into the Stone Age Culture. Both Mesolithic and Neolithic Cultures material culture, subsistence patterns, and social organization fall under the Holocene era, succeeding the Pleistocene era of Mesolithic communities. approximately 10,000 years ago. Mesolithic communities Chhota Nagpur Region, Central India: The Chhota Nagpur relied on hunting, fishing, and food gathering, gradually region in Central India has Mesolithic sites that play a crucial incorporating animal domestication in later stages. role in understanding the regional variations and cultural A distinctive feature of the Mesolithic Age was the downsizing adaptations of communities during the Mesolithic period. of established tool types. Microliths, miniature stone tools Both Adamgarh and Bagor, mentioned earlier, provide early crafted from crypto-crystalline silica, chalcedony, or chert in evidence of animal domestication in this context. 8 Ancient India  South of River Krishna, Tinnevelly in Tamil Nadu: Mesolithic nomadic lifestyle of their Paleolithic predecessors. This sites south of the River Krishna, including Tinnevelly in Tamil change is often associated with more stable resource Nadu, contribute to our knowledge of Mesolithic cultures in exploitation and environmental familiarity. the southern part of India. These sites offer insights into the unique adaptations and practices of Mesolithic communities in diverse geographical settings. Birbhanpur, West Bengal: Birbhanpur in West Bengal is another Mesolithic site, adding to the regional diversity of Mesolithic cultures in India. The findings from this site contribute to our understanding of the cultural and technological characteristics of Mesolithic communities in eastern India. Sarai Nahar Rai, Near Allahabad, Pratapgarh Area: Sarai Nahar Rai, located near Allahabad in the Pratapgarh area, is a Mesolithic site that contributes to our understanding of human activities and cultural dynamics during this transitional period. Mahadaha, Uttar Pradesh: Mahadaha in Uttar Pradesh is known for the discovery of bone artifacts, including arrowheads and bone ornaments. These findings provide valuable insights into the technology and personal adornment practices of Mesolithic communities in the region. Significant Features Significant features of the Mesolithic period are as follows: ‰ Important Mesolithic sites: Bagor, Rajasthan, on River Kothari, is one of the largest and best documented Mesolithic sites in India. Chotanagpur Region, Central India, is also an important site. Both Adamgarh, M.P. and Bagor provide the earliest Fig. 1.6: Mesolithic Sites in India evidence for the domestication of animals. ‰ Practice of Burials: The Mesolithic period marks the South of the River Krishna, Tinnevelly in Tamil Nadu. emergence of the practice of burial, indicating a shift in Birbhanpur in West Bengal, Sarai Nahar Rai, near social and cultural practices. The existence of burial sites Allahabad, Pratapgarh area suggests a growing complexity in societal structures and Mahadaha, U.P., where bone artefacts are found, perhaps the beginning of ritualistic or symbolic practices including arrowheads and bone ornaments. associated with death. ‰ Microlith Tools: One of the distinctive features of ‰ UseofStoneOrnaments:Anotherculturalinnovationduring the Mesolithic period is the development and use of the Mesolithic period was the use of stone ornaments. microlith tools (miniature stone tools usually made of These ornaments, which could include beads and crypto-crystalline silica, chalcedony, or chert, both of geometrical and non-geometrical shapes). These tools other decorative items, signifies a development in were smaller in size compared to the larger implements symbolic expression and personal adornment, providing of the Palaeolithic period, reflecting advancements in insights into the social and cultural aspects of Mesolithic tool technology and the ability to create more specialized communities. tools. ‰ Increased Cultural Complexity: The utilization of ‰ Introduction of Bow and Arrow: The Mesolithic people microlith tools, the introduction of the bow and arrow, are credited as the first to use the bow and arrow. the practice of burials, and the use of stone ornaments This technological innovation revolutionized hunting collectively indicate an increase in cultural complexity techniques, providing greater precision and efficiency during the Mesolithic period. This period laid the in hunting and significantly impacting subsistence groundwork for further advancements in technology, strategies. social organization, and symbolic expression. ‰ Settling for Longer Periods: Mesolithic communities ‰ Adaptation to Local Environments: Mesolithic demonstrated a shift in settlement patterns, choosing to communities demonstrated a high degree of adaptability stay in one area for longer durations compared to the to local environments. Early Ancient India 9 ‰ Transition to Domestication: The Mesolithic period witnessed a gradual transition towards domestication, as evidenced by the increased sedentism and the early evidence of animal domestication found in certain Mesolithic sites. This shift laid the groundwork for the agricultural practices that would become more prominent in the subsequent Neolithic period. ‰ Discovery of Fire: In the Mesolithic period, early human societies experienced a transformative breakthrough with the invention of fire. The mastery of fire in the Mesolithic period laid the foundation for technological advancements, influencing tool-making, hunting strategies, and ultimately contributing to the development of more complex societies in the millennia that followed. IGNITE YOUR MIND Fig. 1.7: Neolithic Implements In modern times, larger weapons are often perceived ‰ Pottery: Neolithic communities initially handcrafted as more advanced. However, why was the reduction pottery and later adopted the potter’s wheel. Their in the size of tools considered an advancement pottery repertoire included black burnished ware, grey during the Mesolithic age? ware, and mat-impressed ware, marking a significant expansion in the scale of pottery production. ‰ Self-sufficient village communities: In the later stages of NEOLITHIC AGE (FOOD- the Neolithic era, communities embraced a more settled PRODUCING STAGE) lifestyle, residing in circular and rectangular houses constructed from mud and reed. They acquired the The Neolithic Age unfolded in northern India around c. skills to construct boats and engage in activities such as 8000−6000 BCE, while in certain regions of south and spinning cotton and wool and weaving cloth. eastern India, it emerged as late as 1000 BCE. Its historical ‰ Division of labour: With societal progress, recognising importance is underscored by V. Gordon Childe, who the need for additional labour led to the procurement of referred to this phase as the Neolithic Revolution. labour from non-kin groups. This marked the evolution Some Important Characteristics of Neolithic Age(Food of a more organized division of labour based on sex and Producing Stage) age within Neolithic communities. ‰ Advent of food production: Neolithic communities engaged in cultivation, growing crops such as ragi and horse gram (kulathi), alongside domesticating cattle, IGNITE YOUR MIND sheep, and goats. ‰ Innovations in technology: They pioneered Why did V. Gordon Childe view the Neolithic advancements in stone tool production, creating age as a revolutionary period? What significant polished, pecked, and ground stone tools. They shifted transformations were introduced during this era? In from relying on quartzite to using polished stones for your opinion, which of these changes holds the most tool-making. Celts played a crucial role, especially significant value? in crafting ground and polished handaxes. Neolithic Settlements can be categorized based on the types of IMPORTANT NEOLITHIC SITES axes used: Burzahom and Gufkraal, Jammu and Kashmir: Burzahom is North-Western: Rectangular axes with a curved known for its unique rectangular chopper, and Gufkraal is cutting edge. famous for pit dwellings, stone tools, and graveyards located North-Eastern: Polished stone axes with a rectangular within households. Burzahom also presents an intriguing butt, occasionally featuring shouldered hoes. aspect with the burial of domestic dogs alongside their Southern: Axes with oval sides and pointed butt. masters in graves. 10 Ancient India  Maski, Brahmagiri, Piklihal, Budihal, and Tekkalakota, Karnataka: Maski, Brahmagiri, Piklihal, Budihal, and Tekkalakota in Karnataka provide evidence of cattle herding. Budihal is noteworthy for its findings related to community food preparation and feasting, shedding light on social practices during the Neolithic period. Paiyampalli, Tamil Nadu, and Utnur, Andhra Pradesh: Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu and Utnur in Andhra Pradesh contribute to the understanding of Neolithic cultures in southern India. These sites provide insights into the regional variations in technological and cultural practices during the Neolithic period. Garo Hills, Meghalaya, and Chirand, Bihar: Garo Hills in Meghalaya and Chirand in Bihar exhibit considerable use of bone implements, particularly those made of antlers. These sites contribute to our understanding of the varied tools and materials used during the Neolithic period. Saraikhola, Taxila on Potwar Plateau, and Amri, Kotdiji, Mehrgarh, Pakistan: Saraikhola near Taxila, Amri, Kotdiji, and Mehrgarh in Pakistan hold significance as Neolithic sites. Mehrgarh, in particular, is recognized as the earliest Neolithic site and is often referred to as the “Breadbasket of Balochistan.” Koldihwa and Mahagara, South of Allahabad: Koldihwa in the INDIAN OCEAN Belan Valley is unique for having three-fold settlements from the Neolithic, Chalcolithic, and Iron Age periods. Mahagara, Fig. 1.8: Neolithic sites of India also south of Allahabad, features many strata of circular huts along with crude hand-made pottery. It is notable for ‰ Sharp and Polished Stone Tools: Technological providing the earliest evidence of rice cultivation in the world. advancements in toolmaking are evident in the Neolithic Chopani – Mando, Belan Valley: Chopani – Mando in the period, with the use of sharp and polished stone tools. Belan Valley provides the earliest evidence of the use of These tools were crafted with greater precision and pottery during the Neolithic period. The discovery of pottery efficiency, reflecting the increased skill and knowledge of is a crucial indicator of technological advancements and Neolithic communities. changing cultural practices. ‰ Mud Brick Houses: The transition from temporary Belan Valley and Narmada Valley: Belan Valley, located on shelters to more permanent dwellings is marked by the the northern spurs of the Vindhyas, and the middle part of construction of mud brick houses during the Neolithic the Narmada Valley, showcase evidence of all three phases of Age. This shift indicates a more settled lifestyle and the Paleolithic settlement, followed by Mesolithic and Neolithic establishment of permanent communities. settlements. These sites contribute to a comprehensive understanding of human habitation and cultural evolution ‰ Pottery and the Use of Wheels: Neolithic communities over multiple periods. utilized wheels for pottery-making, a significant technological innovation that facilitated the production Significant Features of more sophisticated and standardized pottery. The use Significant features of the Neolithic period are as follows: of earthenware became prevalent, providing improved ‰ Agriculture: The Neolithic Age is characterized by the storage and cooking vessels. shift from a nomadic, hunter-gatherer lifestyle to settled ‰ Village Communities: The Neolithic Age is characterized agriculture. Communities began cultivating crops, such as by the emergence of village communities. The shift wheat, barley, rice, and millet, marking a transformative from small, mobile groups to settled villages signifies a development in human subsistence strategies. fundamental change in social organization, with more ‰ Domestication of Animals: Alongside agriculture, complex structures and communal living. the Neolithic period witnessed the domestication of ‰ Advancements in Textile Production: Advances in textile animals. Humans began to keep and raise animals production are observed in the Neolithic Age, with the for various purposes, including food, labor, and other use of cotton and wool for clothing. The cultivation of resources. This symbiotic relationship between humans plants for fibers and the domestication of animals for and animals played a crucial role in the development of wool contributed to the development of textile industries Neolithic societies. within these communities. Early Ancient India 11 ‰ Cultivation of Crops: Neolithic communities cultivated a intricate white line designs. An intriguing aspect is that variety of crops, including wheat, barley, rice, and millet. female potters abstained from using the potter’s wheel, Rice cultivation, in particular, was extensive in eastern India, with this practice being exclusively reserved for men. showcasing regional variations in agricultural practices. IMPORTANT CHALCOLITHIC SITES The innovations and advancements during Neolithic period laid the foundation for the development of more complex Harappan Culture: The Harappan culture, also known as the societies in subsequent ages. Indus Valley Civilization, is considered a significant part of the Chalcolithic culture. This advanced civilization, with its well- planned cities and sophisticated urban features, represents CHALCOLITHIC AGE / COPPER- a crucial aspect of Chalcolithic developments in the Indian STONE AGE (C. 3000−500 BCE) subcontinent. South India - River Valleys: In South India, various river valleys ‰ The Chalcolithic age marked a pivotal moment with the played a crucial role in the Chalcolithic period. The Godavari, simultaneous use of metal and stone tools. Copper was Krishna, Tungabhadra, Pennar, and Kaveri river valleys were the first metal employed, occasionally supplemented by inhabited during this time, contributing to the understanding bronze. While the Chalcolithic stage is predominantly of regional variations in Chalcolithic cultures. associated with the pre-Harappan settlements in terms Paiyampalli-Tamil Nadu: Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu is an of technology, it appears in various regions of the country important Chalcolithic site in South India. Archaeological after the decline of the Harappa bronze culture. Some findings at Paiyampalli provide insights into the material culture, Chalcolithic cultures coexisted with the Harappan and technological practices, and societal organization of Chalcolithic pre-Harappan cultures, with a general trend suggesting communities in the region. a post-Harappan chronology. Ahar and Gilund, Banas Valley-Rajasthan: Ahar and Gilund, located in the Banas Valley of Rajasthan, are notable Chalcolithic sites. Ahar is known for its focus on smelting and metallurgy, indicating advancements in metalworking technologies. Gilund, on the other hand, occasionally used burnt bricks, offering unique insights into architectural practices during the Chalcolithic period. Nevasa, Jorwe, Navdatoli, Daimabad, Songaon, Inamgaon, Nasik - Maharashtra: Nevasa, Jorwe, Navdatoli, Daimabad, Songaon, Inamgaon, and Nasik in Maharashtra are significant Chalcolithic sites in the Indian subcontinent. These locations provide insights into the non-Harappan cultures of the Chalcolithic period. Daimabad, in particular, is renowned for the recovery of bronze goods. Chirand, Senuar, Sonpur - Bihar, Mahishdal - West Bengal: Chirand, Senuar, Sonpur in Bihar, and Mahishdal in West Bengal Fig. 1.9: Remains Found at Ahar Site Rajasthan (Chalcolithic) are Chalcolithic sites that contribute to our understanding of ‰ Chalcolithic communities engaged in the domestication the cultural developments in eastern India during this period. of various animals, such as cows, sheep, goats, pigs, and Kayatha - Madhya Pradesh: Kayatha in Madhya Pradesh buffaloes, while also practicing deer hunting. Although features mud-plastered floors and exhibits pre-Harappan beef was consumed, there was a preference against pork, elements in pottery. This site provides insights into the and horses were not part of their familiarity. Interestingly, cultural and technological characteristics of the Chalcolithic domesticated animals were primarily slaughtered for communities in central India. meat rather than being utilized for dairy products—a Malwa - Madhya Pradesh: Malwa in Madhya Pradesh is practice that persisted among the Gond people of Bastar. known for having the richest Chalcolithic ceramics, spindle Agriculture played a significant role, with the cultivation whorls, and showcasing a non-Harappan cultural context. The site offers valuable information about the material culture of wheat, rice, bajra, and several pulses like lentils, and technological advancements of Chalcolithic societies in black gram, green gram, and grass pea. In the eastern the region. regions, a diet centered around fish and rice prevailed, coupled with a prevalent use of slash-and-burn or jhum Significant Features cultivation. Notably, neither the plough nor the hoe have Additional distinctive features of individuals in the been discovered at any site from this period. Chalcolithic age include: ‰ The Chalcolithic people employed various types of ‰ Unfamiliarity with burnt brick: typically, they resided pottery, with black and red pottery being the most in thatched houses constructed from mud bricks, popular. Crafted using the potter’s wheel, it featured constituting a village-based economy. 12 Ancient India ‰ Writing: There was absence of knowledge regarding living in round huts, marking the beginnings of social writing during the Chalcolithic era. stratification in Chalcolithic societies. ‰ Villages: Presence of small villages characterized by closely situated huts. BRONZE AGE ‰ Cooking: Adoption of cooking practices for food preparation. The Bronze Age, succeeding the Copper Age, marked a ‰ Worship of Mother Goddess: Discovery of small pivotal period in human history as it propelled advancements clay images of earth goddesses at Chalcolithic sites, in toolmaking and survival equipment. During this era, the suggesting a possible veneration of the Mother Goddess. discovery of bronze, an alloy of tin and copper, provided a ‰ Ornaments: Fondness for ornaments and decoration, groundbreaking alternative for tool production, offering with women adorning themselves with shell and bone increased rigidity and durability compared to copper tools. ornaments and intricately crafted combs in their hair. The Bronze Age is generally recognized to have begun around ‰ Knowledge of Bulls: The bull possibly served as a 3000 BC, initially in Egypt and subsequently spreading to religious symbol, inferred from stylized bull terracottas regions across Northern Europe and Asia. found in Malwa and Rajasthan. A key factor in the widespread adoption of bronze tools was ‰ Expertise in copper craftsmanship, including the art the necessity to secure raw materials, particularly tin, as of copper-smelting, coupled with proficiency in stone people migrated to different locations in search of resources working. Production of beads from semi-precious stones essential for bronze production. like carnelian, steatite, and quartz crystal was also a Notable Inventions during the Bronze Age include: notable skill. ‰ Wheel: The Mesopotamian civilization is credited ‰ Knowledge of spinning and weaving. with the invention of the wheel around 3500 BC. This ‰ Existence of Chalcolithic settlements in southeastern innovation had a profound impact on transportation and Rajasthan, western Madhya Pradesh, western machinery, revolutionizing various aspects of daily life. Maharashtra, and other parts of southern and eastern ‰ Tongue Sword: The tongue sword, a military tool, gained India, with discernible regional variations in cereals prominence in the European region during the Bronze Age. cultivated, pottery styles, and other aspects. For example, Its design and functionality were tailored to the needs of rice production was predominant in eastern India, while military forces, reflecting advancements in weaponry. barley and wheat were cultivated in western India. ‰ Locks: Evidence of the first locks emerged during the ‰ Varied burial practices across regions: In Maharashtra, Bronze Age, indicating a growing need for securing the dead were buried in the north-south direction, valuables. This innovation in security measures reflected whereas southern India followed an east-west burial the evolving complexity of societies during this period. orientation. Eastern India practiced fractional burial. ‰ Other Inventions: Various other inventions characterized ‰ High infant mortality: It is evidenced by the burial of a the Bronze Age, including the development of ropes, significant number of children in western Maharashtra. umbrellas, and socketed axes with sharp bronze fronts. These inventions not only improved daily life but also played essential roles in agriculture, construction, and defense. IGNITE YOUR MIND The Bronze Age was marked by the flourishing of diverse cultures and the exchange of ideas, technologies, and goods Why was the production of copper, achieved through across regions. The mastery of bronze metallurgy enabled melting techniques, introduced well before the Iron societies to create sophisticated tools and implements, Age, despite being an advanced technology? fostering progress in various fields. As civilizations expanded and interacted, the innovations of the Bronze Age laid the ‰ Emergence of social inequalities: With chiefs residing groundwork for future advancements, shaping the course of in rectangular houses exerting dominance over others human history. THE AGES Pre-Historic Ages Important Sites Features ‰ The Soan valley and Potwar Plateau in ‰ Hunter-gatherers. northwest India. ‰ Used stool tools and large pebbles for hunting. PALAEOLITHIC/ ‰ The Siwalik hills in north India. ‰ Stone implements are made of a hard rock known OLD STONE AGE ‰ Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh. as quartzite. (BEFORE 10,000 B.C.) ‰ Adamgarh hill in Narmada valley. ‰ Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh. ‰ Attirampakkam near Chennai. Early Ancient India 13  ‰ Langhnaj in Gujarat ‰ Stone tools (microlith tools / small-sized) ‰ Adamgarh in MP ‰ First people to use bow and arrow. MESOLITHIC/MIDDLE ‰ Some places of Rajasthan, UP and Bihar. ‰ Settle for longer periods in an area. STONE AGE ‰ First burials are reported and use of stone- (10,000 B.C.-6000 B.C.) ornaments also appears. ‰ Discovery of Fire ‰ Kashmir valley ‰ Agriculture was practiced. ‰ Chirand in Bihar, Belan valley in UP ‰ Domestication of animals was started. ‰ Several places of Deccan ‰ Used sharp and polished stone tools. ‰ South India: Maski, Brahmagiri, Hallur ‰ Built mud brick houses. NEOLITHIC AGE and Kodekal in Karnataka, ‰ Wheels were used to make pottery. (6000 B.C.-1000 B.C.) ‰ Paiyampalli in TN and Utnur in AP. ‰ Used earthenware. ‰ Village communities were developed. ‰ Clothes made of cotton and wool. ‰ Agriculture: Wheat, barely, rice, millet. Rice cultivation was extensive in eastern India. ‰ Harappan culture is considered as a part ‰ Copper and bronze came to be used. of Chalcolithic culture. ‰ Smelting metal ore and crafting metal artifacts. CHALCOLITHIC AGE ‰ South India: the river valleys of the ‰ People began to travel long distances to obtain (3000 B.C.-500 B.C.) Godavari, Krishna, Tungabhadra, Pennar metal ores. and Kaveri. ‰ Unaware of - Iron, horse and script. ‰ Paiyampalli in TN. CONCLUSION In conclusion, the exploration of different periods in ancient Indian history, from the Palaeolithic era to the Chalcolithic period, reveals a fascinating tapestry of human evolution, cultural innovation, and technological advancement. The Palaeolithic era, marked by the use of primitive stone tools, witnessed the adaptability of early humans to diverse environments. The Middle and Late Palaeolithic periods showcased advancements in tool technology, highlighting the resourcefulness and ingenuity of our ancestors. The Mesolithic period witnessed significant changes, with the introduction of microlithic tools, the use of bows and arrows, and the emergence of settled communities. The shift towards agriculture, domestication of animals, and the development of polished stone tools characterized the Neolithic Age, setting the stage for more complex societies. The Chalcolithic period, marked by the use of copper and stone tools, showcased regional variations and cultural diversity. 14 Ancient India  Harappan Civilization 2 ‰ One suggesting emergence from pre-Harappan/ INTRODUCTION indigenous village cultures, deemed a more plausible The inception of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), viewpoint. commonly identified as the Harappan Civilization, signifies ‰ Another proposed diffusion from the Mesopotamian the commencement of historical developments in the Indian Civilization according to diffusionist theorists. subcontinent. This civilisation flourished approximately ‰ The triangular expanse occupied by the Harappan around 2,500 BC in the western region of South Asia, civilization, encompassing present-day Rajasthan, encompassing contemporary Pakistan and Western India. Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, and Pakistan, represents the While it is classified as a civilisation that is older than largest among the three ancient urban civilisations, Chalcolithic civilisations, in many ways, it was far more the others being ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia developed than settlements in the Chalcolithic Age. The IVC (contemporary Iraq). Despite the wealth of archaeological traversed through three distinct phases: the Early Harappan findings, a definitive consensus on the precise origin of Phase (c. 3300−2600 BCE ) the Mature Harappan Phase(c. the Harappan culture still needs to be discovered within 2600−1900 BCE), and the Late Harappan Phase(c.1900−1300 academic discourse. BCE). Noteworthy for its prominence, the Indus Valley hosted the most extensive of ancient urban civilizations in comparison to Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China. IGNITE YOUR MIND ‰ BP stands for Before Present What factors contribute to the Harappan civilization ‰ BCE stands for Before Common Era being labelled as the “Harappan age” rather than the ‰ CE stands for the Common Era. The present year is “Mohenjodaro age”? 2023 according to this dating system. ‰ c. stands for the Latin word circa and means The Harappan Civilization Unfolds in three “approximate.” Discernible Phases ‰ The Early/Pre-Harappan phase (c. 3300-2600 BCE) THE HARAPPAN CIVILISATION ‰ The Mature Harappan phase (c. 2600-1900 BCE) AND ITS THREE PHASES ‰ The Late Harappan phase (c. 1900-1300 BCE) The Harappan civilization, contemporaneous with According to some classifications, there are four important Mesopotamia and Egypt, stands as the inaugural urban stages or phases of evolution and they are named as pre- civilization in South Asia, surpassing its counterparts in Harappan, early-Harappan, mature-Harappan and late territorial expanse, covering approximately 800,000 square Harappan. kilometres. Initially designated as the Indus Valley Civilization by early historians, subsequent archaeological excavations ‰ The pre-Harappan stage is located in eastern in the Ghaggar-Hakra belt revealed extensive settlements Baluchistan. The excavations at Mehrgarh, 150 miles beyond the confines of the Indus region. Harappa, being to the northwest of Mohenjodaro, reveal the existence the initial archaeological site unearthed, lends its name to of pre-Harappan culture. In this stage, the nomadic the entire civilization. Integral to the proto-history of India, people began to lead a settled agricultural life. the Harappan civilization is situated within the Bronze Age, predating Chalcolithic civilizations yet demonstrating Despite an inherent cultural continuity throughout its phases, a superior level of development. Archaeological evidence but yet nuanced differences among these three phases. provides valuable insights into the Harappan civilization, characterised by a blend of cultural uniformity and diversity. FIRST PHASE: THE EARLY HARAPPAN PHASE (3300 TO 2600 BCE) The Origin of the Harappan Culture The origin of the Harappan culture remains a subject of The Early Harappan Phase, spanning from 3300 BCE to ongoing debate, with two primary perspectives posited: 2600 BCE, derives its nomenclature from the adjacent Ravi River. Commencing with the gradual migration of farmers from the highlands to the lowland river valleys, this phase predates the Kot Diji Phase (2800–2600 BCE), named after a location in northern Sindh, Pakistan, close to Mohenjo-Daro. Notably, the earliest specimens of the Indus script, a distinctive feature of this civilization, trace back to the third millennium BCE. ‰ During this phase, settlements emerged along the Hakra River, with Kalibangan in India being a notable village discovered in this context. ‰ The civilization’s trade networks extended to analogous regional cultures and distant sources supplying raw materials, such as lapis lazuli and other materials for bead-making. ‰ Villagers during this period had successfully domesticated a variety of crops, including peas, sesame seeds, dates, and cotton. Additionally, the Fig. 2.1: Map of IVC Early Phase domestication of animals like the water buffalo was evident. ‰ By 2600 BCE, the early Harappan villages had undergone a transformative process, evolving into significant urban centres, thereby marking the inception of the mature Harappan phase. According to recent research findings, there was a discernible shift in the societal landscape of the Indus Valley, transitioning from villages to fully- fledged cities during this critical juncture. IGNITE YOUR MIND What is the significance of the proximity of major Harappan sites to rivers? How does this geographical connection reflect the interdependence between geography and societal development during that era? SECOND PHASE: THE MATURE HARAPPAN PHASE FROM 2600 Fig. 2.2: Map of IVC Mature Phase TO 1900 BCE Characteristics of the Mature Harappan The Mature Harappan Phase, spanning from 2600 BCE to Phase 1900 BCE, witnessed the remarkable expansion of early ‰ The characteristics of the Mature Harappan Phase Harappan civilizations into expansive urban centres by 2600 are exemplified by the urban design and architecture, BCE. Prominent among these urban centres were Harappa, as well as the advancements in art, crafts, and the Ganeriwala, and Mohenjo-daro in contemporary Pakistan, prevailing social, religious, and economic conditions of alongside Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Rupar, and the time. Notably, the urban layout and architecture of Lothal in present-day India, exemplifying the scale and the Harappan civilization have been subjects of extensive complexity of these settlements. scholarly investigation. 16 Ancient India ‰ These urban centres featured well-planned, expansive, Adjacent to the Great Bath, across a lane to the and straight roadways, reflecting a high degree of north, stood a smaller building containing eight urban planning sophistication. Residential structures bathrooms—four on each side of a corridor—each were equipped with efficient drainage systems and with drains connecting to a main drain running along ventilation, attesting to the meticulous attention given the corridor. to both functional and aesthetic aspects of urban living The distinctive nature of this structure, coupled with during this period. The finds from the Mature Harappan its contextual placement within the Citadel alongside Phase contribute significantly to our understanding of other unique buildings, has led scholars to posit that the advanced and organised nature of the Harappan it served a specific purpose, possibly as a site for civilization. ritualistic bathing. N (Manda in Jammu) B) Lower Part: W (Sutkagendor in ‰ The lower part of the city was inhabited by the general E (Alamgirpur in UP) Baluchistan) populace, where residents conducted their daily lives and pursued their professional activities. S (Malvan in South Gujarat) ‰ Residential structures in the Lower town of Mohenjodaro Fig. 2.3: Extent of Harappan Civil