Philosophy Standard Twelve PDF

 The coordination committee formed by G.R.No.Abhyas-2116/(pra.kra43/16)SD-4 dated 25.4.2016 has given approval to prescribe this textbook in its meeting held on 30.01.2020 and it has been decided to implement it from academic year 2020-2021. Philosophy S...

 The coordination committee formed by G.R.No.Abhyas-2116/(pra.kra43/16)SD-4 dated 25.4.2016 has given approval to prescribe this textbook in its meeting held on 30.01.2020 and it has been decided to implement it from academic year 2020-2021. Philosophy Standard Twelve Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Research, Pune. The digital textbook can be obtained through DIKSHA APP on a smartphone by using the Q.R.Code given on title page of the textbook and useful audio-visual teaching-learning material of the relevant lesson will be available. First Edition : 2020 © Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Reprint : October 2021 Research, Pune - 411 004. The Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Research reserves all rights relating to the book. No part of this book should be reproduced without the written permission of the Director, Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Research, ‘Balbharati’, Senapati Bapat Marg, Pune 411004. Philosophy Committee Translation Smt. Mrinalinee Vanarase, Chairman Dr. Kranteegita Bhosale Dr. Deepti Gangavane, Member Dr. Harishchandra Navale, Member Cover Dr. Sharmila Virkar, Member Smt. Madhura Pendse Prof. Varsha Jape, Member Pictures and Illustrations Dr. Seema Deshpande, Member Shri. Devdatta Balkawade Dr. Rajesaheb Maradkar, Member Typesetting Dr. Shridhar Akashkar, Member DTP Section, Balbharati, Pune Smt. Varsha Sarode, Member-Secretary Paper 70 GSM Creamwove Philosophy Study Group Dr. Nagorao Kumbhar Print Order Prof. Shital Yerule Prof. Madhavi Kavi Printer : Prof. Eshwarappa Mathwale Dr. Meenal Katarnikar Prof. Ajay Shingade Production Dr. Shantaram Bute Sachchitanand Aphale Dr. Santosh Thakre Chief Production Officer Dr. Sachin Khokale Prabhakar Parab, Prof. Vijay Karekar Production Officer Prof. Vidya Garkhedkar Shashank Kanikdale, Prof. Tanuja Yelale Asst. Production Officer Authors Coordination Smt. Mrinalinee Vanarase Smt. Varsha Sarode Dr.Vaijayanti Belsare Assistant Special Officer, Dr. Deepti Gangavane History and Civics Dr. Sharmila Virkar Dr. Harishchandra Navale Publisher Dr. Rajesaheb Maradkar Dr. Shridhar Akashkar Vivek Uttam Gosavi, Controller Maharashtra State Textbook Bureau, Dr. Meenal Katarnikar Prabhadevi, Mumbai - 400 025. Prof. Vidya Garkhedkar NATIONAL ANTHEM  Preface Dear Students, The subject Philosophy consists of a fundamental study of the problems that mankind has been facing for last many centuries. It is a peculiarity of Philosophy that it studies a particular subject-matter holistically and critically at the same time. In the previous year, you have been introduced to this subject and its three main branches. The textbook of the twelth standard has been structured keeping in mind the fact that your curiosity about this subject must have increased now. This year you will be acquainted with the prominent concepts and theories in these branches of Philosophy, namely; metaphysics, epistemology and ethics. Alongwith these you will also be introduced to the branch called aesthetics. Considering the scope and the significance of metaphysics, three lessons in this book discuss the problems in this branch of Philosophy. At the same time, they also inform you about the contemporary scientific views about these problems. This will help you understand the relation between Philosophy and Science. The fourth Chapter is devoted to epistemology. It discusses the concept and the sources of knowledge. The fifth Chapter deals with the question how should we evaluate our actions in ethical terms. Chapter six explains the nature of aesthetic attitude and provides information regarding the important concepts in the Philosophy of art. Like last year, there is a Chapter discussing the interrelations between science, technology and Philosophy. While taking a review of the development of science and technology, it also acknowledges the ethical problem that this development gives rise to. As in the previous year, the thinking about all these subjects in both - the Indian and the Western tradition has been reviewed this year too! This will make you understand the peculiarities of both the traditions. You will also understand the similarities and differences between them. In order to explain the abstract concepts and theories, instances that you know of have been used. At the same time, this year the terms in philosophical terminology have also been introduced. Though the study of this text-book may satisfy your curiosity about Philosophy to a certain extent, we believe that you will have the urge to study this subject in a deeper and comprehensive manner. Do use literature other than the text such as books, informative websites on the internet, encyclopedia and other audio-visual media for such a study. Material kept on Q.R. code is also for your help. Best wishes for a joyful and fruitful study. (Vivek Gosavi) Pune Director Date : 21st February 2020 Maharashtra State Bureau of Texbook Bharatiya Saur : Falgun 2, 1941 Production and Curriculum Research, Pune  - For the Teachers - An Approach to Teaching Standard XII Philosophy The textbook for 11th standard primarily aimed at introducing Philosophy in a way that students would find interesting and engaging. The present textbook assumes that this purpose is fulfilled and students are more curious about the subject. The book is designed by keeping knowledge-constructivism and activity- based, student-centric learning in focus. The book includes lessons on Metaphysics, Epistemology, Ethics and Asthetics as well. Three Chapters are devoted to Metaphysics, explaining main concepts in metaphysics, theories of causation and discussions related to self. This year too, both - Indian and Western streams of thoughts are presented by briefly introducing their key-concepts and theories. Each lesson also introduces today’s scientific thought related to that lesson at the end. The last lesson discusses the relationship between science, technology and Philosophy along with some pertinent issues related to Science and Technology. This will help students understand the relevance and the importance of Philosophy in present times. Along with giving fundamental information about Philosophy the book also aims at generating interest about philosophical thinking and develop perspectives towards life. The activities given in every lesson are designed with the same purpose. We believe that teachers will certainly help students and encourage them for this. Teaching and learning can also be enhanced with the help of other means as newspapers, documentaries and authentic websites on the internet. Textbooks of 11th and 12th will together provide a solid base for further studies in Philosophy. Supplementary information given on QR code will also be useful in this regard.  Competency Statement No. UNIT COMPETENCY 1 There is Explain the concept of the ‘ultimate reality’ something, Take an overview regarding the number and the nature of ultimate reality but what it is? Compare various opinions in Indian and western tradition State scientific perspective about reality. 2 What is Discuss the relationship between cause and effect Cause? Analyze thoughts / positions regarding causation in Indian and western tradition Compare philosophical and scientific perspective regarding causation 3. Who am I?.... Explain the concept of ‘self’ in philosophy What am I? State the perspectives regarding self in Indian and western philosophy State the salient points regarding self awareness in science 4. How do we Show the relationship between Prama, Pramata and Praman know? Explain the epistemological thought (praman vichar) in Nyaya philosophy in details. Analyze the concept of ‘knowledge’ in western epistemological tradition Make distinction between Empiricism and Rationalism Evaluate Empiricism and Rationalism Underline the distinction between the processes of knowing for individual and for society with the help of scientific perspective 5. What to do Explain Karma theory and the concept of Purushaartha in Indian philosophy and why? State how moral philosophy is discussed in Charvaka, Jain and Baudhha Darshana Classify types of hedonism Compare deontology and consequentialism Apply moral doctrines while identifying appropriate action or evaluating any action Analyze the problems in moral philosophy in the light of evolution 6. Following the Know the importance of aesthetic experience in human life path of art Explain the characteristics of aesthetic perspective Discuss various philosophical thoughts regarding the concept of beauty Identify different components of artistic creation and the relationship between them in any art form of one’s choice Understand objective elements in aesthetic and artistic experience from scientific perspective 7. Science, Discuss various problems philosophy is facing due to increasing effects of Technology technology on human life and Exemplify and state different perspectives regarding man-nature relationship Philosophy Explain the relationship between the laws of nature and human behavior Discuss problems in environmental philosophy Know what is alternative technology and discuss what is alternative life- style  Contents 1. There is something, but what it is?...............................1 2. What is Cause?.............................................................17 3. Who am I?.... What am I?...........................................29 4. How do we know?.........................................................40 5. What to do and why?...................................................59 6. Following the path of art.............................................80 7. Science, Technology and Philosophy..........................95  1. There is something, but what it is? For example, if you look around the l Introduction classroom, you will notice that the tables, l Ultimate Reality: Number and Nature chairs, benches, doors, windows and their l Metaphysics in Indian philosophy frames are all totally different objects but all l Metaphysics in Western philosophy are made of wood. Wood is obtained from l The scientific perspective trees. Apart from wood, we get many more things from plants and trees. We get leaves, Introduction flowers, fruits, food items and medicines too. In the previous year, while getting We prepare medicines from the medicinal introduced to Philosophy, we have taken the plants. Bamboo is a good example of a three major questions that it deals with and multipurpose plant as it is used not only for a brief account of the branches that are making useful objects but also for creating developed from them. Metaphysics is the artistic objects. branch of Philosophy that seeks answers to Let’s collect ! one of the fundamental questions i.e. ‘What Find information about the bamboo- is’? Subsequently, we have also studied the made products and classify them. origination of the concepts like real, unreal, permanence, impermanence, God etc. This The above-mentioned examples are of year we shall get acquainted with some of man-made objects. In natural world too we the theories, concepts and problems of may experience multiple forms of a particular Metaphysics and their significance. object. For example, a small spark, a flame, We are a part of a vast universe. This a burning fire, a forest fire all these are universe consists of innumerable objects of various forms of one and the same element various types and properties. As these objects i.e. Fire. Water-cycle or food-chain are the interact with each-other in different ways, examples of natural transformation of a various activities take place in the world every particular thing from one form to another. moment. The nature of everything keeps We may say that egg, larva, caterpillar, pupa, changing. Since ancient times man has butterfly, are different entities or even different remained curious and has sought to gain stages of the same life form. knowledge of this world. This curiosity and sense of wonder has led to the development Let’s write! of Philosophy and Science. While observing Collect examples of ‘various forms the world around them, humans realized that of one and the same object’ and classify the innumerable objects of the world originate them into natural and man-made objects. from some specific basic elements. Several objects, though apparently different from each- Through such observations man concluded other, have common origins. that although the world is full of diversities, Chair it must have been created out of some basic Table elements. Even if, this guess was correct it Wood Door raised many questions. If it is believed that Fruits, flowers due to some changes among basic elements Tree Medicine other objects were created, then what was the Food products cause of that change? What was the process 1 of change? Did this change occur mechanically to the periodic table. or someone planned it? If it was planned, In this overall journey, the questions that then, what was the purpose? Along with the philosophers have contemplated upon, the these questions, man was curious about two methods used to solve these, their responses, basic questions; what is the number of these concepts and language used for this are of fundamental elements  -  one, two or many? great importance. We can see that science And what is their nature? What are the found its directions from the transitions that qualities of these elements that make it philosophy went through. Let’s study some of possible for a variety of things to originate the important views of philosophers regarding from them? In this lesson, we shall mainly the number and the nature of the ultimate study the responses given to these two reality. questions in Indian and Western traditions. Contemplation over the fundamental Hence, the title of this lesson is, ‘There is nature of the universe can be traced back to something, but what it is?’ the earliest days of philosophical thought of It is said that understanding the nature both - the Indian and the Western traditions. of the ultimate reality or ‘Sat’ has been the The ‘Nasadiyasukta’ in Vedic tradition, the matter of interest for Philosophy. The word pre-Socratic thought in Greek tradition are ‘reality’ refers to the real or that which exists. some of its instances. Most of this It has nothing to do with political or any contemplation was of the nature of logical other sort of dominance or supremacy. As we reasoning. Mainly, the explanation of the have studied last year, the ‘real’ is independent naturally occurring events or of the existence and does not depend on any individual or of objects was not supported by any kind of experience for its existence. This ultimate divine or supernatural entity, as was otherwise reality is the reality which is at the root of found in ancient myths. With the increasing everything that exists. It is called as ‘the clarity of thought, the concept of ‘Dravya’ in ultimate reality’ as in the process of Indian tradition and the concept of ‘Substance’ discovering the origin of everything that in Western tradition emerged. Knowledge of exists, one discovers reality at the end. It the world is primarily obtained through the exists in itself and is not created. That is medium of sense-experiences. As we have why the elements of the ultimate reality are studied in the previous year, there is a called as the fundamental elements. difference between the experience and the This can be better understood with an thing we experience. It is not necessary that example, when we look at trees, we see the everything that we experience has existence, trunks, branches, leaves, flowers, fruits but e.g. mirage. Similarly, not everything that the roots that nourish the trees and hold them exists is a matter of sense-experience, e.g. to the ground, are hidden under the ground atoms. and usually they are not visible. But, the We experience a material object through survival of the trees depends on them. its appearance, color, shape, type, its Philosophers through their speculations and dimensions and its relation to other objects. conceptualizations have attempted to explore For example, when we eat an orange, we and understand the ultimate reality which is experience the orange-yellow color, the round the root-cause of the empirical world. When shape, the sour-sweet smell, the taste and the the intellectual leap that the philosopher had cool touch. We also observe whether it is taken was coupled with the methods of small or large and how it is different from modern science, this journy gathered sweet lemon. But is an orange just a bunch momentum. That is how we have reached up of color, smell, flavour, feel, shape or 2 something more? You may ask, what kind of and air as the basic elements. a question is this? The smell, the taste etc. Today, we are aware that these five or are the qualities of the orange and not the four elements cannot be regarded as the basic orange itself. By this, you may mean that an elements. It is through scientific analysis, we orange is that of which all these are the have learnt how these elements originate. It is qualities. These qualities are dependent on the the combination of two atoms of hydrogen orange for their existence. It is this substratum and one atom of oxygen that form a molecule of the qualities that is known as the substance. of water, hence, water cannot be the basic The relations, quality and quantity are always element. However, this does not mean that the applied ‘to something’. They cannot exist philosophical attempts made in search of the independently. Their existence depends on the basic elements were mistaken. The notion of substance. The qualities like color, smell, ‘basic element’ is not incorrect. In the pre- shape etc. can exist in several substances at scientific period, it was difficult to find the the same time. However, they cannot exist exact number of the basic elements merely on without substance. Comparatively, substance is the basis of reason and general observations. not dependent on the existence of any specific Nevertheless, it should be noted that this qualities for its existence. The writing board question discussed in philosophy paved the in the class can be black, green or white, but way for the scientific research in this direction. the board remains the board regardless of its color. A small shrub changes into a plant and Let’s think ! plant grows into a tree but the fundamental substance remains the same. In short, even if The color of the sky or the colors the quality, quantity or relations of the of the rainbow are characteristics of substance changes, the substance exists forever. which substance? Ultimate Reality: number and nature Logically speaking, the question ‘how many fundamental elements are there in the The philosophers wondered about various universe’? can be obviously answered as one, questions such as: what could be the number two or many. Therefore, the answers given of these substances that exist? Are the ones by different philosophers or philosophical that exist, created from some fundamental systems can be categorized into monism, substances? What are these basic elements? dualism and pluralism. Similarly, the possible How many are they in number? You are all answers to these questions regarding the aware of the five basic elements discussed in nature of the elements can be specifically Indian tradition. Earth, water, fire, air and classified. As we have studied in the previous ether are said to be the five basic elements. year, everything that exists can be classified That is because, it was believed that the into living and non-living (animate and material world is formed out of the various inanimate). Inanimate objects are physical combinations of the five basic elements in and material whereas in living beings we different proportions. Except Charavaka, all find consciousness existing alongwith the other prominent Indian schools of philosophy matter. Accordingly; we get specific logical had accepted the notion of five basic elements possibilities, either the ultimate reality is (panchamahabhuta). The Charavakas admit material or spiritual or it is both material the existence of four basic elements (earth, and spiritual. Consequently, three different water, fire, air) while they rejected ether. theories are formed: materialism, idealism and Even the ancient Greek philosopher realism. The philosophical contemplations in Empedocles considered only earth, water, fire different traditions may slightly vary, but the 3 questions posed by them often remain the the living or conscious body. The answer to same. It is seen that the similar responses how these inanimate elements produce living are put forth in unique ways by different beings lies in the peculiar combination of these traditions. Now, let’s get acquainted with elements. This point shall be discussed in these significant theories of Indian and detail in the third chapter. In a way, Charvaka’s Western Metaphysical traditions. views are similar to views of modern science. Metaphysics in Indian Philosophy Just like science, Charvaka embraces materialism and pluralism. In Indian tradition, both the orthodox and Jaina Darshana heterodox schools of philosophy have reflected upon the number and nature of the ultimate Like Charavaka, Jaina darshana is also reality. Let’s take a brief account of some of included in nastika darshanas and it too the major theories. While taking this review, it advocates pluralism. In Jaina philosophy, is also required to take into consideration the everything that exists is classified into living historical chronology. Majority of the darshanas (jiva) and non-living (ajiva). While discussing acknowledge pluralism. These mainly include the nature of the non-living objects, that are Charvaka, Jaina, Mimamsa, Nyaya and devoid of consciousness, apart from the five Vaisesika. However, they have some differences basic elements Jainas also take into regarding the nature of the ultimate reality. Of consideration motion, rest, time and space. all the main darshanas, Charvaka is the only We have studied in Science that every darshana that has accepted materialism. physical object occupies some space. It exists Materialism states that the fundamental nature in certain time. It requires motion to be of the universe is material; that means it is created. Even if, you and your friends are non-conscious and physical. It also states that reading the same book in the classroom, the consciousness is a by-product of matter. In each copy of that book is in a different the history of philosophy it is observed that the place. Students of the next batch may read materialists are often pluralists. It implies that the same book, although it may have been the number of the ultimate reality is more than printed after your book. There is an active two. Nonetheless, the theory believes that the participation of many individuals-objects in fundamental principles are material, no matter the process of writing and printing of the what their number is. book. Charvaka Darshana Space According to the Charavakas, the universe is created out of the four material elements Time Earth viz. earth, water, fire and air. There is no creator of this universe. The interactions between the four basic elements and their Basic Water compounds produce everything in this universe. Rest elements It does not require any creator or purpose. Existence of an independent substance called ‘soul’, is generally accepted by many darshanas Fire as the basis of the consciousness. Though, Motion Charvakas accepted consciousness they rejected the notion of independently existing Air Ether soul. They believed that the peculiar combination of the four basic elements produce 4  Each object is made-up of inseparable ancient times the concept of atoms was put particles of matter (Pudgala) that is, atoms. forth by Vaisheshikas. Everything that we can According to Jainas, not only the bodies of see or experience has some shape/form. living beings and natural objects but also the Therefore, it is possible for us to see it. Minute mind, the speech, the breath are products of objects are not ordinarily visible. That is why matter. The Jiva or soul (atma) possesses a microscope is used to perceive such objects consciousness. The soul is never unconscious. or organisms. Even the objects perceivable Jainas do not agree with the Charvaka’s under the microscope have ultramicroscopic view that ‘body itself is the soul’. According dimensions. When objects are broken, they are to them, the soul or jiva is different from the broken into smaller pieces. Have you ever body. In the third chapter, we shall discuss observed the broken glass of a car that has the types of jivas and their nature as met with an accident? How tiny are the pieces described by the Jainas. For now, it is enough of the glass that is crushed! From such to keep in mind that Jainas are pluralists. observations, it is understood that visible They believe that material substance and objects are made-up of extremely minute spiritual substance independently exist. particles, invisible to the eyes. The more Vaisheshika Darshana advanced the technology, the greater is our ability to divide objects into minute particles! You may be aware of the fact that in Bauddha Darshana : Pratiyasamutpada Similarly, if the cause or component that is and impermanent nature of the real necessary for the existence of a thing is Siddharta Gautama Buddha was not destroyed, then the thing gets destroyed too. interested much in the metaphysical When a particular disease is caused due to questions. He believed that discussion of some bacterial infection, the doctor gives us these questions are futile for attaining medicine that would kill the bacteria. For freedom from suffering. From the four noble good health we require nutritious food. If truths that he has mentioned related to the there is lack of nutritious food it has adverse problem of suffering, we understand his effect on the health. views on reality. In the formulation of the The theory of impermanence proposed second noble truth i.e. ‘there is a cause of by Buddhism emerges from the theory of suffering’ he has stated the theory of Pratityasamutpada which states that, the Pratityasamutpada. According to this theory, origin of everything that exists is dependent the existence of everything that exists on some other thing. According to this depends on some conditions / on the theory everything that exists in the world, existence of some other things. It means will be destroyed eventually. Thus, nothing that the existence of everything is conditional. is eternal or permanent. Whatever is, is If the condition on which the existence of a impermanent, changing, because existence particular thing depends gets destroyed, of everything that exists is dependent on then the existence of that particular thing some other conditions. Impermanence, will be destroyed too. If we put this in the change is the characteristic of the universe. terminology of causation it can be said that, It is mainly due to this reason that Bauddha behind the existence of every object or event darshana rejects the existence of God and there is some or the other cause. Nothing soul or the existence of any permanent exists without a cause. If there is a cause, substance. then the effect is inevitably produced. 5  The Vaisheshikas explain the visible Let’s speak world with reference to these nine substances, Give examples of household as well as their qualities, their activities, their techniques used to convert objects into similarities, their peculiarities and their small particles. E.g. mill machinery, relationships. A distinctive characteristic of grinding stone, grinding wheel etc. Vaisheshika’s metaphysics is that in the initial stage of explanation they merely discuss Vaisheshikas had realized that if we existence i.e. the things that exist. But, later, went on to divide objects, we would eventually they also discuss non-existence. Our reach the indivisible particles which would knowledge of the world includes ‘what is’ as not be possible to divide further. They could well as ‘what is not’. You arrive at the not actually reach these particles, but through exam-center and suddenly realize that one of their logical reasoning they could predict the your friends has not come for the exam. Or possibility of such particles. It was these while going on a trip, we miss some person indivisible particles that they named ‘atoms’ who could not make it to the trip. At times (Paramanu). All material objects are created when we go to a store we do not find the from the integration of the atoms of earth, stuff we are looking for. Vaisheshikas water, fire and air; while the destruction of discussed abhava/non-being in detail; because the objects is due to the disintegration of the they were emphatically aware that our atoms. Atoms, however, are eternal. That is, experience of the world is a combination of they are neither created nor destroyed. They both- the existent and the non existent, being exist forever. In short, atoms are eternal and and not being, ‘this is’ and ‘that is not’. imperishable. However, the objects created From Vaisheshika’s standpoint the ultimate from them are non-eternal and perishable. reality is pluralistic and realistic. According to Vaisheshikas, there are in all Sankhya Darshana nine substances that form the basis of the universe. Apart from the four basic elements In Indian tradition, Sankhya Darshana mentioned above, they include fifth basic provides a systematic presentation of Dualism. element ether as well as space, time, mind The Samkhya system also accepts realism. and soul under the categary of substance. According to Samkhyas the material principle and the spiritual principle exist independently. Both of these substances are eternal and infinite. Samkhya refers to the principle of consciousness as ‘Purusha’. Consciousness is not just an attribute but the essence of the Purusha. Purusha is pure consciousness. There is no trace of matter in this principle. It does not undergo any kind of transformation. The Purusha is inactive; it means the Purusha does not perform any action. The Purusha exists beyond the physical world. Change, activity, creation, destruction are all characteristics of the material principle. The material principle is called ‘Prakriti’ by Samkhyas. Prakriti consists of three elements - sattva, raja and tama. Since, all 6 the material objects originate from prakriti; being, material or spiritual? We will study these three elements are found in different this in the third lesson. proportion in every object. When the prakriti Advaita Vedanta Darshana is in its original state, all the three elements are in equilibrium. That is, none of the In Indian tradition from the earliest times, elements overpowers the other. This equilibrium that is since Rigveda period, it is conceived gets disturbed as Prakriti comes in contact that the universe is fundamentally one, with purusha. This initiates the churning of everything that exists in it is just a part of three gunas and the entire perceptible world the existence of an extremely colossol purusha. sequentially evolves from prakriti. Prakriti’s The development of this notion of oneness of course of evolution that moves from subtle the universe is found in the Upanishads as elements to gross elements is as follows - well. The one and only ultimate reality intellect (mahat or buddhi), ego (ahankara), pervading the universe, came to be known as mind (manas), sense-organs (jnanendriya), Brahman. motor organs (karmendriya), five subtle As per the exposition given by Adi elements (tanmatras), five gross elements Shankaracharya on monism, the plurality, (mahabhutas). Sankhyas believe that at the diversity and change experienced in the world time of dissolution, each element returns to is merely an illusion. Only the permanent, its original state and gradually the entire eternal and unchanging Brahman exists. visible world merges into prakriti again. Whatever is, is only Brahman, it does not These states of creation and destruction ocur undergo any change really. It seems to have repeatedly in course of time. undergone change, but in reality it does not. The concept of time in Indian tradition We feel as if we experience many things, but is cyclical. Due to this cyclical or circular everything is actually one and the same. motion of time it is believed that the similar Plurality does not exist. Moreover, ‘we’ and states of existence keep recurring in the all that we experience, is not really separate universe in the same sequence. The ‘yuga’ from each-other. concept in Indian tradition is related to this All of us see dreams, right? In a dream cyclical notion of time. we meet many people, see many things and Let’s understand! experience them. But, the dream world is not real. And you also are aware of the fact that Get acquainted with the notion of the existence of the dream is not separate four Yugas (eras) found in Indian from your existence. When you dream, the tradition. Study its connection with the dream appears to be real. When you wake- idea of time found in this tradition. up, you realize that what you were experiencing was just a dream and not the To summarize Sankhya metaphysics, the reality. Similarly, the examples of change material principle and the spiritual principle and diversity that we experience in the exist independently. Their properties are waking state is merely maya, a grand illusion. mutually opposite. There is no element of We understand it only when we attain the consciousness in matter, similarly, in proper knowledge of the ultimate reality. This consciousness there is absolutely no trace of knowledge is called ‘Brahmadnyana’. material substance. However, in human Shankaracharya describes three levels of beings, the body and the soul, that is the reality. What we experience in dreams is material substance and the spiritual co-exist. called ‘Pratibhasika Sat’ (dream reality). What then is exactly the nature of human 7 The reality that we experience in the waking these in last year’s book? More than deciding state is called ‘Vyavaharika Sat’ (empirical whether these beliefs were true or false, what reality). It is real on a practical level, but is important today is to understand thought just as the dream world becomes unreal once process of the philosophers behind these we wake-up, similarly, the vyavaharika sat views. This was the period of beginning of becomes illusory when one attains the the Western philosophy. Approximately two knowledge of Brahman. That ultimate level thousand five hundred years ago these of reality is called ‘Paramarthika Sat’ by philosophers observed the universe and Shankaracharya. However, the ‘parmarthika’ contemplated over the origins of this universe reality never proves to be unreal. and the thoughts we study are the fruits of Pratibhasika Vyavaharika Paramarthika their reflections. Sat Sat Sat In the previous year, while being introduced to metaphysics we studied the two Dream Experiences Knowledge concepts of ‘permanence’ and ‘impermanence’ experience in waking of Brahman related to reality. Among the philosophers state mentioned above, Parmenides was the one In the Chapter ‘Appearances are deceptive’ who regarded permanence as the distinguishing that we studied in the previous year, the characteristic of Reality. He believed that examples of ‘shuktirajat nyaya’ and ‘rajjusarpa anything in relation to which we can use the nyaya’ were given to explain this very point. terms such as ‘is not’, ‘was not’ or ‘will not be’ do not really exist. ‘That which is’; Brahman is devoid of properties, of any always exists and we cannot use the words form, so it is called as attributeless and formless. It is due to our ignorance that we ‘does not exists’ or ‘is not’ for it. That is do not experience Brahman the one and the why Parmenides maintains that motion, only reality, whereas, we experience only the change, time and distinctions are not real. objects that have some form and attributes. When change occurs, that which did not exist Brahman is consciousness. The same comes into existence and that which existed consciousness is present in us. According to disappears. Since, change is related to ‘non- Advaita Vedanta once you realize that your being’, it does not have real existence. The soul or your consciousness is the Brahman idea of time is associated with change. In a itself, you attain the knowledge of Brahman. world where there is no change, there is no In short, Advaita Vedanta tradition is Idealistic time either. and monistic. Western Metaphysics In the pre-Socratic period, a group of philosophers was keen on understanding the ultimate nature of the universe. These philosophers came up with different ideas about the ultimate reality. Amongst these were the monists like Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Anaxagoras, Parmenides, Heraclitus and so on. However, they had different views about the one ultimate principle. Do you remember having read Different methods of measuring time 8  If there is motion, the objects can change His saying ‘no one can step into the their positions due to it. We move objects from same river twice’ is well-known. This means one place to another, as also we ourselves that although there is continuity in the move from place to place. Logically speaking, universe there is no permanence. we require an empty space for any kind of The universe attains some harmony movement to be possible. But, empty space through the strife of the opposites. Heraclitus means a place where there is nothing. Taking explains this idea with an example of a bow. this into account it seems that an empty or Have you ever made or at least handled a vacant space cannot exist. If, there is no empty toy bow? So long as there is an equal tension space, there is no motion, if there is no motion, on both ends of the bow string, its curvature there is no change. Similarly, if we try to is maintained. When the tension decreases or analyze how the objects differ from each-other, increases, the string breaks and the bow then we may have to say that the differences straightens. That means the curvature of the too are not real. Because when there is a bow comes into existence and perpetuates difference between two objects, it is implied due to two opposite and equal tensions! The that there is no similarity between them. We characteristics of reality are impermanence distinguish between pen and pencil, because the and stability emerging from conflict. Although, way a pen is, pencil is not and the way a Heraclitus, just like Parmenides, is a Monist, pencil is, a pen is not. their views regarding the nature of the Using such arguments, Parmenides holds ultimate reality are completely opposite. that, that which is real and is the ultimate Many attempts were made to reconcile substance, is one and it is complete. There the impermanence experienced in the world is no emptiness or ‘nothingness’ in it. It is and the influence of the view that the real permanent and eternal. It is neither created must be permanent. In the pre-Socratic period, nor destroyed. Hence, it has no beginning the pluralism of Empedocles and Democritus and no end! Parmenides’ speculation is a is significant in this context. Empedocles perfect example of how a theory can be postulated the four basic elements namely, developed just by using logical reasoning. earth, water, fire and air. It is due to the two The philosopher Heraclitus, however, forces of attraction and repulsion that the took a stand completely opposite to Parmenides. elements integrate and disintegrate. Through According to him, change is the essential these, the world is shaped. characteristic of reality. Reality is constantly changing. Impermanence is the nature of the Democritus and his master Leucippus universe. This process is best symbolized by were materialists. They realized that the fire; the flames of fire are constantly blazing. process of dividing material objects would While constantly consuming fuel it keeps lead to atoms, the indivisible particles of producing smoke and ash. It was due to this matter. There is infinite number of atoms in nature of fire, that Heraclitus considered fire the universe. Atoms are basically dynamic in to be the primordial stuff. nature. They are constantly moving in the Fire void of the universe. They differ in shape and size. There is no qualitative difference between them whatsoever. But, because of Air the constant motion and different shapes, they become inter-connected and give rise to Water/Moisture various objects. These objects, however, have different properties. When atoms are separated Earth 9 from each-other by mechanical actions- reactions, the objects get destroyed. Democritus Let’s talk! believed that these ‘happenings’ in the world Find examples of universals or are not intentional; there is no purpose essences. Discuss Plato’s world of whatsoever behind it. essences. Let’s write! All the common nouns used in our Compare Vaisheshika’s concept of language denote these essences that are ‘atom’ with that of Democritus. known through reason, but not experienced by the senses. This world of essences is real and exists in actuality, whereas, the everyday Plato world that we experience is just a copy, In the pre-Socratic Western philosophy, imitation, shadow or reflection of that world. we come across two main streams with In a sense the shadows and reflections are reference to the nature of reality. According also actual. Have you ever thought that your to one standpoint the ultimate reality is not reflection in the mirror is unreal? However, that which is changing and impermanent. whether it is a shadow or a reflection its The ultimate reality is unchanging, existence depends on the existence of that indestructible and eternal. According to the object of which it is a shadow or reflection. other, impermanence, constant change is the Similarly, Plato asserts that the existence of true nature of ultimate reality. This world is this world depends on the world of forms. impermanent and is constantly changing. This Aristotle is the only unchanging truth. Socrates’ disciple Plato tried to reconcile both these Plato’s disciple Aristotle, however, views in his theory of two worlds. completely rejected the notion of an We always experience that the world independent world of forms. He thinks that around us is constantly changing. How can the world we experience is the only world we deny that? That is why this world must that existed, exists and will exist. Changes be considered as real. But, according to occur in this very world and he discusses the Plato, the existence of this visible world kinds and causes of these changes. We shall depends on what he calls the world of study Aristotle’s theory of causality later. The forms. This world of forms consists of central concept of Aristotle’s metaphysics is essences or universals that are shared by substance. According to him, except the two innumerable particular objects. These fundamental changes; namely creation and essences are beyond space and time. They destruction - all other changes occur in the are neither created nor destroyed. They exist substance. Just like Vaisheshikas, Aristotle forever and do not undergo change. What presents various categories in order to study we call trees have so many different shapes, reality. Whatever exists can be classified types and properties. Unless all of these under these categories - substance, quality, particular trees have something in common, quantity, relation, place, time, position, we cannot call them by a common name. possession, activity and being acted upon. What is ‘common’ in all of these? Treeness! Like Vaisheshikas, he too believes that substance is the most important category of all. 10  the mind. But in reality we use the word ‘I’, being for our existence which includes both the acted body and the mind. activity upon Descartes has asserted that the body and the mind are two separate entities. The body quality possession is made-up of material substance and is physical in nature. Material substance exists Substance in both time and space and is experienced quantity position by senses. These are the essential characteristics of matter. On the contrary, the mind or the soul whose nature is consciousness, relation time does not occupy space and it cannot be place experienced by senses. Descartes concluded that the universe consists of two independent substances - corporeal substance and incorporeal substance which have opposite Modern Philosophy attributes. Here, one has to take into account that matter and consciousness are independent Descartes of each-other. Their existence doesn’t depend upon one another. But, they are not self- In medieval as well as modern philosophy, dependent. Both these substances are created the concept of Substance was considered by God. Therefore, above mentioned definition important in metaphysics. As we have seen of Substance given by Descartes is applicable before, the category of substance does not only to God. But, in the world created by depend on anything else, whereas the other God we can call matter and consciousness categories depend on the substance for their as substances in a limited sense because their existence. To take the previous example, existence doesn’t depend upon each-other. orange color, the round shape, the sour and Descartes’ metaphysics advocates dualism sweet taste are all properties of an orange. and realism. Color, shape, mass, taste cannot exist at all unless they belong to something. Spinoza The French philosopher Rene Descartes, Descartes was followed by philosopher known as ‘the father of modern philosophy’, Spinoza, in this rationalist tradition. However defined the Substance as ‘that which exists he rejected Descartes’ dualism and proposed independently’. monism. The arguments he offered were Last year, you have studied Descartes’ based on Descartes’s definition of Substance method of doubt. Using this method of doubt, itself. Spinoza argued that if knowledge of Descartes arrived at the indubitable truth, ‘I the substance does not depend on anything think, therefore I am.’ However, after deeply else for its existence, then there should be no contemplating over the question, ‘who am I’? need of knowledge of anything else for Descartes accepted dualism. As per the acquiring complete knowledge of it. prevalent beliefs, thinking and functions Nevertheless, what we experience, as we try related to it are not of the body but of the to gain complete knowledge of an object is mind. The intellect, emotions and desires are that; we also have to obtain information of rooted in the mind. This means that, the ‘I’ objects related to it. If you wish to know that Descartes proved exists indubitably is what a pen is, you need to know the paper 11 on which the pen is to be used, the words also advocates monism. But, his monism was or the language that it writes, the people who of different nature. Parmenides’ concept of can read it. This list can always be extended. ultimate reality has no room for motion, In short, all the objects in the world change and time. According to Spinoza the appear to be directly or indirectly related to fundamental principle has infinite attributes; each-other. Likewise, they depend on each- it is impossible for human-beings to know all other. Spinoza asserted, that all these objects, of them; as human intelligence has limitations. in fact everything that exists, is a part of a Everything in the universe is related and single fundamental, limitless, eternal, infinite inter-dependent, because there is one and the reality. This fundamental reality was called same fundamental reality at its roots. Hegel ‘God’ or ‘nature’ by him. According to also believes that the entire universe is Spinoza, it is the one and only principle that created from this principle. He calls this pervades the universe and everything that principle the ‘Absolute’. exists in it. This view is also known as The ‘Absolute’ is one, the existence of Pantheism. which is not relative to existence of anything else, it is that which absolutely is. It is not Leibniz material, Hegel believes, it is conscious, he Leibniz is the third philosopher who also considers it to be of the nature of reason. accepts the concept of substance discussed In other words, this absolute is as if the above. He propounded pluralism, rejecting fundamental power or force which is rational. both Descartes’ dualism and Spinoza’s It is also dynamic in nature. Many potentialities, monism. Like the ancient atomists, Leibniz possibilities exist in it in a dormant form. The argued that if we keep dividing the visible aim of this absolute is to realize itself by objects into parts we may end-up reaching actualizing all of its potentialities. It is in this fundamental indivisible substance called process that the universe is manifested. The atoms. However, he argued that these atoms Absolute manifests itself in the form of matter are neither completely material nor physical and the universe evolves gradually. This in nature, but have a primary level of evolution has a specific pattern. This is known consciousness. He named these atoms as as ‘Dialectics’. It means that from the conflict ‘monads’. of two opposite principles another better principle emerges. Subsequently, a principle There are infinite monads in the world opposite to this third one emerges and there is and all the non-living and living beings are again a conflict between the two, giving rise created from the combination of these to a new principle. According to this pattern, monads. The universe is a hierarchical Hegel believes that the universe keeps evolving. structure of these monads. God is the highest monad. He has created all the monads. Let’s talk! Although, as per the principle of mathematics infinite combinations of these numerous Discuss the similarities and monads are possible, Leibniz asserts that differences in monistic idealism in the God has created this world as the best metaphysics of Advaita Vedanta and possible world. Thus, it can be said that Hegel. Leibniz combines pluralism and idealism. The Scientific Perspective Hegel Since ancient times, humans have tried to understand the world around them. The Like Parmenides and Spinoza, Hegel world is filled with many objects. Is there 12 any similarity between these objects? What However, there is a big difference between makes them different from one-another? Is it the way we understand these terms today and possible that seemingly different objects have their original meaning. Sometimes, original the same origin? Early humans started to terminology proves to be insufficient and think about such questions. These questions thus, can’t be continued as it is. Ether is an had emerged out of great curiosity about the example of such terminology. Sometimes, surrounding world. The answers to these when we are talking of mind or heart we questions were sought in different ways. are actually talking about brain. Science Sometimes, self-experience became the source accepted such changes in the terminology. of knowledge. Sometimes, imagination Use of terminology can be confusing if the accompanied experience. Experiments were proper meaning and the use of the term is also carried out. These were the simple not taken into account. Thus, improper or experiments that we perform even today. inappropriate comparison of old and new Like making a mercury-based barometer, terminologies should always be avoided. measuring the speed of falling objects etc. This knowledge was based on experiments. Let’s write! The results of these experiments were Along with your classmates prepare a verifiable by anyone. This category defined list of questions in metaphysics which you what we now call as objective knowledge. believe, are not yet solved by Science. Tools of experiment became more precise with time. Use of experiments and instruments How does science address the question, became unavoidable to gain objective “what is” in today’s times? Universe is made knowledge. This became a scientific way of up of particles such as atoms, molecules, finding the objective truth. The basic objective ions, photons etc. The very existence of of finding out the nature of reality was just particles gives rise to various forces the same. However, as science progressed, (gravitational, electro-magnetic and the two the quest obtained more precision. Answer to sub-nuclear forces acting on each-other) one question gave rise to a new question. between them. These forces influence While trying to understand nature of reality properties of matter, different processes that at macro level, it appeared that things happen occur in nature as well as growth and quite differently at micro or atomic level. behaviour of living organisms. The machines and gadgets that we make and use also Newer tools changed the way we function according to these forces and other understand the nature of reality. It was not laws of nature. Thus, it is important to possible for every new entity and phenomenon understand the laws of nature and their that was found out to have any name from effects on human life. Motion of particles is the beginning. This was new knowledge. It what we call ‘energy’. Today science explains required new terminology. For example, it the nature of reality in this terminology. was impossible to imagine any such thing as ‘nucleus’ of an atom without powerful This is just a brief introduction. Many microscopes and other tools. Science has branches of science are seeking to find the adopted such new terminology from time to nature of reality. This quest has revealed time. Sometimes, the new terminology is certain important laws of nature. They are quite similar to the old one, sometimes, even also called as the universal laws. Knowledge though the term is just the same the meaning of these laws is the greatest achievement of changes completely. Philosophers have used science. terms like particle and atom since long. 13  We saw what science has to offer with need resources at a gigantic scale. Thus, how respect to metaphysical questions. It is to prioritize the use of resources becomes a difficult to conclude this discussion without matter of debate. Should we exploit resources a reference to its ethical implications. for the sake of knowledge that has little or The ethical concerns are - does this no significance for human life? Ethical quest ever stop? Do we ever feel satiated questions like these are important in the with the answers? These are some major progress of science. Scientists take different concerns regarding the development of positions on these issues. This increases the science. We have acquired knowledge of possibilities of keeping scientific progress on laws related to matter and energy. However, the right path. We will adopt scientific we hardly discuss their effects on human perspectives in our lives in a better way if life. Instead, all our curiosity is directed we keep ourselves aware of the development towards big bang theory and expansion of of science. A healthy debate on ethical issues the universe. If, curiosity was limited only in science in which scientists and society to the level of thought, there was no need equally participate will always be important to raise any concern. But, we use tools, for appropriate development of science. equipments and instruments for it. They Sat - सत् Buddhi - बुद्धी Jiva - जीव Ahankara - अहंकार Ajiva - अजीव Manas - मनस Atma - आत्मा Jnanendriya - ज्ञानेंद्रिय Abhav - अभाव Karmendriya - कर्मेंद्रिय Dravya - द्रव्य Tanmatra - तन्मात्रा Guna - गुण Mahabhutas - महाभूते Vishesha - विशेष Yuga - युग Samanya - सामान्य Brahman - ब्रह्मन् Karma - कर्म Brahmadnyana - ब्रह्मज्ञान Samavaya - समवाय Pratibhasika - प्रातिभासिक Purusha - पुरुष Vyavaharika - व्यावहारिक Prakriti - प्रकृती Paramarthika - पारमार्थिक Mahat - महत EXERCISES Q.1 Fill in the blanks choosing the correct into jiva - ajiva types. option from the bracket. (Sankhya, Jain, Nyaya) (1) Experience of........... objects is about the (3) Instruments and experiments are necessary form color, shape, type etc. of object. to acquire........... knowledge. (material, imaginary, philosophical) (subjective, inter-subjective, objective) (2)........... darshana classifies all the things (4) According to Plato, existence of visible 14  world is dependent on world of............ Q.5 Write the answers in 20-25 words. (forms, reflections, material objects) (1) What are the forces created by particles (5) According to Descartes, corporal and in- in the world? corporal are two independent substances (2) How many substances are given by which have........... qualities. Vaisheshikas? What are they? (opposite, inter-dependent, inter-relational) (3) What is the dialectical method given by Q.2 Find the odd word/pair out and write. Hegel? (1) Thales, Anaximenes, Heraclitus, Descartes. (4) State the nature of the atoms Democritus? (2) Materialism, Realism, Asatkaryavada, Q.6 Write a short note on the following. Chidvada. (1) Abhava Q.3 State with reason whether the following (2) Monism statements are true or false. (3) Heraclitus’s notion of reality. (1) Leibniz was a monist. (4) Nature of according to Vaisheshikas (2) According to Parmenides reality is Atoms. changing. (5) Hegel’s concept of ‘Absolute’. (3) Charvaka advocates materialism. Q.7 Explain the following statements with (4) Shankaracharya does not consider examples. Pratibhasika Sat as ultimate reality. (1) You cannot step into the same river twice. Q.4 Complete the concept-map / flow-chart. (2) Charvakas accept materialism and (1) pluralism. Q.8 Distinguish between the following: (1) Materialism and idealism. Three levels of (2) Dualism and pluralism. reality by Q.9 Explain in detail Descartes’ dualism and Shankaracharya Spinoza’s monism. Q.10 Explain completely Sankhya’s view about reality. (2) Q.11 Write a dialogue on the following: Helping your classmate who believes that the things we see in dream are real, to undersand the concept of ‘Pratibhasik Sat’. Material elements accepted by Charvaka Activity Prepare a play on the theme of philosophical discussion about Materialism and Idealism. Present the (3) play in the annual gathering. PPP Elements of Prakriti 15  Parmenides, Empedocles, Democritus, Socrates Thales, Anaximander, Plato, Aristotle Pythagoras, Heraclitus 600-500 005-006 500-400 004-005 B.C.E..E.C.B B.C.E.. E.C.B 400-300 003-004 B.C.E..E.C.B 1800-1900 0091-0081 C.E. 500-1300.E.C 0031-005 C.E..E.C 1700-1800 0081-0071 1400-1600 0061-0041 1600-1700 C.E. 16 C.E. 0071-0061. E.C C.E.. E.C.E.C Medieval Period Jeremy Bentham, J. S. Mill Renaissance Period Rene Descartes, Benedict Spinoza, John David Hume, Immanuel Kant Locke, George Berkeley, G. W. Leibniz This is a timeline of the history of Western Philosophy. In this timeline, some of the most important philosophers are mentioned in chronological order alongwith certain time periods that are crucial in understanding the history of Western Philosophy.  2. What is Cause? Once a question arises, how can our reason l Introduction be at rest unless it finds the answers? With l Concept of cause this quest begins the journey, for finding out l The Notion of cause in Indian the reasons behind the nature of objects and philosophy the causes behind the events in nature, in l The Notion of cause in Western society and in the mind! philosophy It is not only the philosophers who are l The Scientific perspective confronted with these questions, you too are confronted with these questions. For example, Introduction at home when some device of regular use, On reading the title of this Chapter you like radio or television, does not work we may say, “this is something that everyone immediately ask “why?” When at times it knows, then what is the reason behind asking suddenly rains and we wonder “Why it must this question?” This question is asked because have rained?” When a healthy person falls we use many words in our day-to-day sick we wonder “What must be the reason?”. conversations, but if we are asked what is All these are examples of unexpected events. exactly the concept that the word denotes, we However, even when things happen as get baffled and start thinking about it. From expected, the concept of ‘cause’ is always whatever you have studied in Philosophy by with us knowingly or unknowingly. For now you must have realized that in this example, when a friend who does not attend subject, questions are raised about the classes regularly faces difficulty during the concepts that seem to be easy to use or examination and is about to cry, you say, understand. The horizon of our knowledge ‘this is the reason why I would ask you to broadens as we go deeper into these questions. attend classes.’ When you have high ‘Cause’ is one such concept. This concept is temperature after getting drenched in the rain as much important in epistemology and ethics your mother says ‘the cause of your fever is as in metaphysics. Isn’t this a sufficient nothing else but your wandering in rain.’ reason to study this concept and the meaning Whatever ‘happens’ to us is due to some embedded in it? reason. Similarly, there is always some reason behind the things that we do Concept of Cause consciously. Our intentions, desires, Curiosity is a beautiful gift human beings motivations etc. are the reasons behind our have received from nature. Our curiosity is behaviour and actions. not limited to the things that are necessary Let’s talk ! for survival or to the things that are useful. It extends beyond that. It doesn’t end merely Discuss in groups the difference by thinking about what is beneficial or between reasons behind the action / harmful, what is useful or useless for us. It behaviour of an individual and scientific is from such curiosity that the question arises reasons behind events. what is there in the universe? Not only this, but we also ask why everything is the way The search for causes is very important it is? Why does change occur in it? We ask for science too. Explanation and prediction such questions due to a natural curiosity. of events are considered to be major tasks 17 of science. In order to carry out both of these In short, this notion of causation has tasks, science explores the cause - effect pervaded in many areas of our lives and relationships. Causes and effects are related knowledge. It is not surprising that it is to change. That reason due to which change important in Philosophy. It should be noted occurs is the cause and what is generated here that Philosophy is interested in from that change is known as an effect or understanding the concept of ‘cause’ and the a consequence. The task of science is to principles associated with it. It is not the know what is the effect of a particular event function of Philosophy to discover the causes and the regularity with which it occurs. It is underlying existence. All such attempts made the function of scientific laws to explain the by Philosophy in ancient period were regular correlation that is found between theoretical in nature. The major questions events. This correlation is often of the nature philosophers studied were as follows : What of cause-effect relationship. Do you remember is the exact nature of cause-effect relationship? the law ‘all metals expand when heated’? Are effect and cause completely different This law states that because of the cause from one-another? Is causal relation applicable ‘heat’ the effect ‘expansion of metal’ takes to every event? Is this relation necessary? place. On the basis of cause-effect relationship Let’s study these questions and the major natural sciences explain the occurrences in responses given to them in Philosophy. the nature; similarly, the social sciences While studying this, one must keep in explain social events on the basis of cause- mind the period in which these various effect relations of social behaviour. The same responses are given. Why so? It is because law that is used to give explanation, is used the questions which were asked in the most for making predictions. For example, the law initial period of philosophical contemplation that explains the expansion of the mercury and the answers they received are as if the in the thermometer, also predicts that if the foundation of the tower of knowledge on the person has fever the level of mercury will top of which we stand today. We have rise up. ascended to the place where we have reached Like science, religion too speaks about today, by gradually following the sequence cause. Some religions look for the cause of of questions and answers; giving rise in their the existence of the universe. They also turn to newer questions and answers. Have explore the causes behind the nature of the you ever seen the Dahi Handi? In it, we see universe. Some religions also provide causal that the hands of the individuals standing at explanations of the incidences of human life the lowest layer of the human pyramid surely that are not easily explainable. Concepts like cannot reach the pot at the top, but it is only merit-demerit, karma and its consequences because of them that the player at the top are its indicators. The belief that good deeds can break the pot. Got it? will lead to heaven whereas bad deeds will The notion of ‘cause’ in lead to hell, is based on the belief that Indian Philosophy relation between the action and its fruits / consequences is a causal one. Background Let’s discover! Let us first understand the major theories of causation in Indian Philosophy and the Find out the examples of incidents, context in which they have been discussed. where a cause-effect relation seems to Although these relations have been discussed be existing, but actually it is not there. in both Indian and Western traditions, their Present them in the class. cultural backgrounds are different. As we 18 have seen in the previous year, Philosophy relationship has been discussed while studying and culture keep influencing each-other. From the existence of universe and the things this point of view, it seems that being aware existing in it, their nature and their inter- of the cultural background helps us understand relations. the Philosophy that has developed in a In this context, the views of Charvaka, particular culture in a better manner. Jain, Sankhya and Advaita Vedanta schools One of the key-features of Indian regarding the nature of ultimate reality that Philosophy is that this Philosophy is related we studied in the previous lesson must be to the issues we face in our actual lives. As kept in mind. Though, the nature of the the study of this Philosophy satisfies ultimate reality, the notion of ‘Self’ and the intellectual inquisitiveness, it also teaches us cause-effect relationship, have been discussed how to live. This does not mean that it separately in different chapters for provides specific solutions to the specific convenience, we must not forget that, in fact, practical problems that arise in our day-to- these three are inter-connected issues in day life. Rather it develops a broader Metaphysics. We must take into account the perspective towards life. This life-perspective inter-relationship among Metaphysics, is primarily concerned with what ought to be epistemology and ethics.The congnitive, moral the goals of human life. Later, we will study and artistic capabalities of human being are the concept of ‘Purushartha’ in Indian a part of their nature. The relationship tradition which talks about the goals of between man and the universe is at least to human life. some extent determined on the basis of these Almost all the Indian schools of capabalities. Though it may appear that we Philosophy have contemplated over the are discussing different issues in different problem of suffering. No one desires sorrow. chapters of this book we need to keep in But, understanding that it is an inseparable mind that there is a common thread which part of one’s life, these schools have tried to holds them together. Let us now turn towards find the cause of this suffering. At the same the study of theories of causation in Indian time, they have also suggested the ways to tradition. get rid of this suffering permanently. All the In the Indian tradition, material cause major schools of Indian Philosophy except and efficient cause are considered to be the materialist Charvaka, accept the notion of re- two main types of causes. We have already birth. These schools also believe that birth seen that the concept of ‘cause’ is related to inevitably gives rise to suffering. That is why change. That in which change occurs, is they propound liberation from the cycle of known as material cause. The effect/or re-birth as the highest goal of life. This consequence emerges from the material cause. liberation has been named variously by This creation requires motion. That which different schools as moksha, mukti, kaivalya, causes this momentum, is known as the apvarga, nirvana etc. However, all these efficient cause. Wood is the material cause schools agree upon one point that, it is one’s of a cricket bat and the craftsman/carpenter ignorance regarding one’s own self and the who shapes the wood into a bat is the world that is the root cause of being bound efficient cause. That which produces the in the sorrowful cycle of re-birth. Obviously, effect from the material cause is the efficient these schools have propounded that one must cause. It is generally believed that both these eliminate ignorance and know the true nature types are required for the occurrence of the of one’s self and the world and accordingly effect, that is, the consequence. live life in a proper way. The cause-effect 19  Let us do! Sankhya’s theory of satkaryavada is also known as Parinamvada; in the Make posters of various objects process of creation of effect it is the explaining their material cause and cause itself that actually transform into efficient cause. effect. Advaita Vedanta darshana also However, there seems to be a disagreement accepts satkaryavada, but their theory is among Indian schools of philosophy regarding known as ‘Vivartavada’. According to what is their relative role and to what extent Advaita Vedanta, the transformation of in the production of the effect. These differences the cause into effect is merely an illusion, are in relation to two questions. (1) Does the a Maya. The rope that appears / looks effect exist in the material cause in some or like a snake is not a snake; but it the other form prior to the process of change? appears to be a snake. Similarly, the And (2) is the effect independent and distinct world does not originate from Brahman. from the cause? Based on the responses given It is only the Brahman which exists to these questions, the two main theories of while the world only appears to exist. causation were propounded, namely - ‘satkaryavada’ and ‘asatkaryavada’. Samkhya If, there was no such relation between Darshana has accepted satkaryavada. Nyaya potentiality and actuality then any effect Darshana advocates asatkaryavada. could have been produced from any material Satkaryavada cause. But, that doesn’t actually happen. If, The term ‘Sat’ indicates existence. The somebody moves the hand in the air and theory according to which the effect pre-exists shows us either kumkum or any precious in its material cause before its explicit thing we would say that it is just a trick. To manifestation is called ‘satkaryavada’. believe that this is not a trick is a superstition. Sankhyas have presented many influential Effect cannot be produced without a arguments in support of this theory. If we material cause. Moreover there must be assume that the effect does not pre-exist in specific potentialities inherent in that material the cause and is subsequently generated, then cause. The same truth is expressed in the we will have to accept that being or existence proverb, ‘As you sow, so shall you reap’. If originates from non-being or non-existence. you want mangoes, then, it is of no use However, that is not possible. Creation of sowing seeds of sapota in the soil. This anything is not possible out of Nothing. Effect means that cause and effect are qualitatively can only be generated through some processes, not different, they are the latent and with the help of efficient cause. This means manifested states of one and the same thing. it is already implicit in the material cause in The effect is the implicit power in the cause the form of a latent potentiality. Therefore, in a non-manifested form and is manifested one is unable to distinguish it from the under appropriate circumstances. When, we material cause. If a particular effect is to be switch on the tubelight the electric energy produced, then only that material cause should that exists in a non-manifested form in the be chosen in which the effect is late