120 Rules of Grammar PDF

m co k. RULE01: Difference between “Each” and “Every” ric st 1.They are always followed by a singular kg verb. //g Examples:- s: (I)Each student is very talented. tp [Singular verb...

m co k. RULE01: Difference between “Each” and “Every” ric st 1.They are always followed by a singular kg verb. //g Examples:- s: (I)Each student is very talented. tp [Singular verb is used] ht (II)Each of my students is very talented. [Singular verb is used] In sentence (I), “each” performs the function of Adjective (words used to describe or modify nouns or pronouns). The word it describes is the noun “student”. m In sentence (II), “each” performs the co function of Pronoun (word that is used instead of a noun or noun phrase). k. In both the cases, we use the singular verb “is”. ric st kg *NOTE: Each refers to a plural number of people or items, but it considers each person or //g item as an individual or dissimilar unit, it does s: not consider the group collectively. [Individualistic Approach] tp ht Every also refers to a multiple number of people or items; but it considers these people or m items as part of a similar collective group. co [General Approach] k. ric *NOTE: “Each” can play the role of both “Pronoun” and “Adjective”. However, st “Every” is used as an “Adjective” only. kg //g Examples:- s: (I)Every student is very talented. [Correct] tp (II)Every of my students is very talented. [Incorrect (X)] ht In sentence (I), “Every” is used as an Adjective. The word it describes is the noun m “student”. co In sentence (II), “Every” is used as a Pronoun k. which is incorrect. ric *NOTE: “Each” is used for two or more than st two items or people but “Every” is used only kg for more than two items or people. We cannot //g use “every” for exactly two things (In such case, “every” can be replaced by “both”). s: tp Examples:- ht Each person on this earth has to die one day. [more than two persons] Every person I know has watched the movie. [more than two persons] m He has a book in each hand. [Correct] co He has a book in every hand k. [Incorrect](Every cannot be used with two things] ric st kg *NOTE: "Every", but not "each", can be used with abstract nouns. //g s: Examples:- tp They have every reason to be happy ht with their new home. [Correct] They have each reason to be happy with their new home. [Incorrect] m co RULE02: “Both” and “not” cannot be used k. together. In such case, we can use ric “Neither…nor” which is used when we want to say that two or more things are not true. st kg Examples:- //g Both Ram and Shyam are not going to visit s: this place. [Incorrect] tp Neither Ram nor Shyam is going to visit this place. [Correct] ht This is a war which both sides cannot win. [Incorrect] m This is a war which neither side can win. co [Correct] k. ric *NOTE: “Neither” allows us to make a st negative statement about two people or things at the same time. “Neither” goes before kg singular countable nouns. We use it to say //g “not either” in relation to two things. s: RULE03: Usage of Relative Pronouns – tp who, whom, which and that. ht (1) “Who” and “whom” are mainly used for people. However, these pronouns can also be used to refer to animals that are mentioned by name and domesticated by people (i.e. m Domestic Animals). co k. Examples:- ric The witnesses whom I interviewed gave st conflicting evidence. [Used for people] kg The people who just boarded the plane are in a rock band. [Used for people] //g The vacuum scared our dog Rocky, who s: was sleeping on the rug. [Used for a pet] tp ht (2) “Which” is used for animals in general or things (i.e. Non- domestic Animals and Non- living things).  m Examples:- co Vinita visited the park with a dog, which likes to chase squirrels. [Used for an animal] k. The bomb, which killed 15 people, was the ric worst of a series of terrorist outrages. [Used st for a non-living thing] kg (3) “That” can be used for people, animals or //g things (i.e. No restrictions) s: tp Examples:- ht The car that Jasprit bought runs on electricity and gas. [Used for a thing] The musician that won the award is Indian. [Used for a person] m The dog that is chasing the squirrels co belongs to Brijesh. [Used for an animal] k. ric *NOTE: All, any, the only , the same, none, st much, none , much, no, the little, the few, something, anything, nothing and superlative kg degrees are all followed by “that” only. They //g cannot be followed by “who” or “which” s: Examples:- tp This is the same book which you were ht reading. [Incorrect] This is the same book that you were reading. [Correct] m This is the same person that I want to marry. co He spent up the little amount which he k. had.[Incorrect] ric He spent up the little amount that he had. st [Correct] kg This is the best that I can do for you. *NOTE: “Whoever” vs. “Whomever”: //g (1)Whoever is a subjective pronoun. It serves s: as a subject of a verb. tp ht Examples:- Whoever is hungry can have the leftover pizza. (Whoever is the subject of the verb m is, like "He is hungry.") co Give the package to whoever comes for it. k. (Whoever is the subject of the verb ric comes, like "He comes for it.") I am happy with whoever wins. (Whoever is st the subject of the verb wins, like "He wins.") kg //g Whoever is also correct as a subject complement, with linking verbs such as is, s: are, and will be. tp ht Examples:- Whoever it was did not leave her name. Whoever they are, I like their confidence. m co (2) Whomever is an objective pronoun. It serves as an object of a verb or a preposition. k. Examples:- ric st Please invite whomever you choose. kg (Whomever is the object of the verb choose, like "You choose him.") //g Whomever Kate marries is none of our s: business. (Whomever is the object of the tp verb marries, like "Kate marries him.") ht I am eager to work with whomever Dale selects as my partner. (Whomever is the object of the verb selects, like "Dales selects her.") m co RULE04: There are three types of k. conditional sentences: ric st TYPE CONDITION kg //g I condition possible to fulfill s: II condition in theory possible to tp fulfill ht III condition not possible to fulfill  (too late) m co Let’s understand their form: k. TYPE IF - ric MAIN CLAUSE st CLAUSE kg I Simple will-future or //g Present (Modal + infinitive) s: shall/can/may/must tp + V1 ht II Simple Past would + V1 or,  could/might/should + V1 m co III Past Perfect would + have + past k. participle (V3) or, could/might/should ric + have + past st participle (V3) kg //g Examples:- s: If I study, I will pass the exam. [Type I] tp If I studied, I would pass the exam. [Type II] ht If I had studied, I would have passed the exam. [Type III] If your files are in order you may/can leave at once. m If you want to lose weight you must eat less co fat diet. k. If I lived near my metro station I would be in time for work. ric If I were you I would plant some st saplings round the house. kg If we had found him earlier we could have //g arrested him saved the crime. s: Had you obeyed orders this fire accident would have been averted. tp ht *NOTE: The given rule is not applicable in the case of universal truth.  m Examples:- co If water reaches 100 degree celcius, it boils. [Universal truth] k. If you heat water, it turns into vapour. [Universal truth] ric st kg //g RULE05: The general rule for usage of the phrase "one of the" is: s: tp “One of the + PLURAL NOUN + that/who ht etc. + SINGULAR/PLURAL VERB” So, the noun following the phrase "one of the" is always a plural noun m The RELATIVE PRONOUN co (WHO/THAT/WHICH) is absolutely k. crucial here: ric (1)When the relative pronoun “who/that” is st not used – i.e. if "one of the NOUNs" is kg actually the SUBJECT of the verb - then //g we use a singular verb. s: Examples:- tp There are many birds on the tree. One of the ht birds is red. [“One of the birds” is used as the Subject]  m (2) When the relative pronoun “who/that” is used – i.e. if "one of the NOUNs" is not co actually the SUBJECT of the verb - then we k. use a plural verb. Examples:- ric st kg (I)That is one of the birds that fly over my house at night. //g (II)She is one of the mothers who are really s: working hard to make both ends meet. tp ht In sentence (I), “that” acts as the subject for the verb "fly", and “that” in this sentence refers to birds (plural noun) and thus, “fly” (plural verb) is used. m In sentence (II), “who” acts as the subject for co the verb "are", and “who” in this sentence k. refers to mothers (plural noun) and thus, ric “are” (plural verb) is used. st (3)If the sentence follows the form, “The only kg one of the + PLURAL NOUN + WHO/THAT //g etc.”, a SINGULAR verb is required. s: Examples:- tp Rina is the only one of the girls who has ht ever been to India. [Singular verb] This is the only one of the novels which is interesting. [Singular verb] m co RULE06: If there is a combination of k. “Number + Unit + Noun” or, “Number + ric Unit + Adjective” in a sentence, we always use the singular form of the Unit. st kg Examples:- //g He saw a ten inch snake. [Unit – Singular] s: She gave me two five hundred rupee notes. tp [Unit – Singular] ht *NOTE: If there is a combination of “Number + Unit” in a sentence, a singular Unit will m be used if the sentence is not self co explanatory , otherwise a plural Unit will be used if the sentence is self explanatory. k. Examples:- ric st He had five dozen. [Singular Unit]{ Not self kg explanatory, hence we have used a //g singular noun} I have five rupees. [Plural Unit]{Explanatory s: ; hence we have used a plural noun} tp ht *NOTE: In a sentence, if there is more than one Unit, Units are always arranged in ascending order. m Examples:- co Thousands of lakhs of students took the k. test. [Units arranged in ascending order] Note: ric Students take a test and teachers give a test. st *NOTE: Use of words like “handful, kg glassful and fistful” as measuring units: //g Such units are called arbitrary units s: Singular Plural tp Handful Handfuls ht Glassful Glassfuls m Fistful Fistfuls co Spoonful Spoonfuls Mouthful Mouthfuls k. Cupful ric Cupfuls st kg Examples:- //g He pulled out a handful of coins from s: his pocket. [Unit – Singular] tp I use two handfuls of pasta per person. ht [Unit – Plural] Drink a glassful of water with this medicine. [Unit – Singular] m She drank two whole glassfuls of orange co juice. [Unit – Plural] k. He has a fistful of acting awards. [Unit – Singular] ric All of a sudden we just started having st fistfuls of money. [Unit – Plural] kg //g RULE07: Expressions of time, money, speed, s: weight, height and distance, when used or covered in one way, usually take a Singular tp verb. However, when these expressions are ht used or covered in various ways, a Plural verb is used.  m Examples:- co (I)Ten miles needs to be covered completely on foot. [Singular verb] k. (II)Ten mile need to be covered partly by car ric and rest on foot. [Plural verb] st kg In sentence (I), the complete distance (i.e. ten miles) has to be covered by just one means //g (i.e. on foot), thus a singular verb “needs” is s: used. tp In sentence (II), the complete distance (i.e. ten miles) has to be covered by two means (i.e. by ht car and on foot), thus a plural verb “need” is used.  m (III)Five thousand rupees is his salary. [Singular verb] co (IV)Five thousand rupees were spent on k. food and entertainment. [Plural verb] ric (V)Six weeks is not long enough. [Singular st verb] kg (VI) Five kilograms is his weight. //g s: tp ht RULE 08: Certain cases of comparisons: Examples:- m (I)Gold is more precious than all metals. [Incorrect] co (II)Gold is more precious than any k. other metals. [Correct] ric st Look at the above two examples carefully; in kg the first sentence, “Gold” is itself a metal and is being compared with all metals which //g include even gold as a metal. Thus, at a point of time, the meaning of the sentence becomes s: – “Gold is more precious than gold”, tp which makes the sentence wrong. ht However, in the second case, gold is compared with any other metals, which means gold is precious than any metal other than gold. This makes the statement m meaningful and logical. co k. (III)Diamond is more precious than all metals. [Correct]ric st kg The above sentence is correct as Diamond being a non-metal is compared to all metals. //g s: (IV)Kalidasa was more famous than tp all English poets. [Correct] ht (V)Kalidasa was more famous than all poets. [Incorrect]  m In sentence (IV), Kalidasa is compared with all English poets, which is correct as Kalidasa co was not an English poet. k. However, in sentence (V), Kalidasa is ric compared with all poets, which include even Kalidasa. This makes the sentence st wrong or meaningless. kg //g s: tp ht RULE09: Prepositions of Time: “Since” and “For”.  m The words “for” and “since” are used in sentences where the speaker wants to talk co about something that started in the past and k. continues into the present. ric The preposition “for” is used to talk about st an amount of time or space. The amount of kg time could be seconds, minutes, hours, days, //g months or even years. The amount of time does not need to be exact. s: For is used for “duration” tp Since is used to denote “Point of start” ht The preposition “since” is used to refer to a point of time. “Since” can refer to a point m after a specific time or event in the past or, it co can refer to a particular point beginning sometime in the past and continuing until k. the present time. The particular point in ric time could be anything – last Tuesday, 2008 or midnight. st kg Examples:- //g He has been here for 6 months and still s: cannot speak a word of German. [for + a tp period of time] ht I've only known her since the beginning of last week. [since + a particular point in time] He has been learning English since childhood. m co *NOTE: “for” is used to specify a period of k. time while “since” is used to specify a ric particular point in time. st kg *NOTE: Only the Perfect Tense or Perfect Continuous Tense is used before “since” and //g “for” when they denote time.. s: tp Examples:- ht It has been raining since 8 a.m. [Present Perfect Continuous Tense] I have had this watch since 1965. [Present Perfect Tense] m co *NOTE: “since” is always followed by “Simple k. Past” tense. ric st Examples:- kg I had been waiting for him since the time I had completed my graduation. [Incorrect] //g I had been waiting for him since the time I s: completed my graduation. [Correct] tp ht RULE10: When two actions occurred in past, the action which happened earlier is denoted m by using Past Perfect Tense and the action co which happened later is denoted by using Simple Past Tense. k. Examples:- ric st He had finished the work after we had met kg him. [Incorrect] //g He finished the work after we had met him. [Correct] s: The patient died before the doctor tp arrived. [Incorrect] ht The patient had died before the doctor arrived. [Correct] I finished the book after I had returned from college. m RULE11: We use a Possessive Adjective (my, co our, his, her, their, your) before a Gerund. k. Examples:- ric st I hope you don’t mind me borrowing kg your car. [Incorrect] I hope you don’t mind my borrowing //g your car. [Correct] s: tp In the above examples, notice that the only ht difference is ‘me’ versus ‘my’. “My” is the possessive form of the pronoun ‘I’ or ‘me’. For example, “my book” and “my idea” are possessives. The book and the idea belong to me. m “Me” is the objective case of the pronoun. co Thus, the second example is correct—the k. sentence that uses the possessive “my” ric because we use a possessive before a Gerund and “borrowing” is a gerund. Here st “borrowing” plays the role of a noun. kg “Gerund” ------------> When V1+ING is used //g as a noun s: I know his reading every night has helped tp him pass the test. [Possessive and Gerund – ht focus is on reading] I hope you don’t mind my staying with you next week. [Possessive and Gerund – focus m is on staying] co My father doesn't like my going outside with k. Ram. ric RULE12: Law of Inversion: st kg Inversion means putting the verb before the subject. It is a literary technique in which the //g normal order of words is reversed, generally for emphasis or special effect. s: tp Two types of Inversion: ht (1)Partial Inversion (2)Complete Inversion m co Structure of Sentence (Normal Sentence): “Subject + helping verb + Main verb + …” k. Examples:- ric st My students are working very hard. [Normal kg sentence] //g I have never seen such a beautiful place. [Normal sentence] s: tp In case of inversion, we start a sentence with ht the helping verb instead of the Subject. Structure of Sentence (Inversion): “Helping verb + Subject + Main Verb + …” m co Examples:- k. Never have I seen such a beautiful place. [Inversion] ric st kg In the given example, inversion is used to emphasize the fact that in my whole lifetime //g I have not seen such a beautiful place. s: tp We generally use Inversion when we begin ht the sentence with an Adverb. Examples:- m Rarely did he go there. [Adverb + helping verb + subject + main verb + …] co Seldom have I seen such a beautiful view. k. [Adverb + helping verb + subject + main verb + …] ric st kg Consider the above two examples, whenever we begin a sentence with an Adverb, Law of //g Inversion is followed, according to which Adverb will always be followed by a helping s: verb. tp And whenever the Adverb is followed by a ht helping verb, we call that a Partial Inversion. In the case of Complete Inversion, a main verb is used after the Adverb. m co Examples:- k. Here comes the King! [Adverb + main verb + …] ric st There goes all our money! [Adverb + main kg verb + …] //g *NOTE: The case of “No sooner…than…” s: No sooner had I entered the class when tp it began to rain. [Incorrect] ht No sooner had I entered the class than it began to rain. [Correct]  m In the above two examples, “No sooner” is used as an Adverb which is followed by a co helping verb “had”. But it is to be noted that k. “No sooner” always comes with “than” and not with “when”. ric st *NOTE: Some more examples:- kg He never goes to temple. Neither she does. //g [Incorrect] s: He never goes to temple. Neither does she. [Correct] tp ht In the above examples, the first part of the sentence is complete. In the second part, the sentence is starting with an adverb “Neither” which will follow the law of inversion. Thus, m the helping verb “does” will come before the co subject “she”. k. ric RULE13: Whenever we use normal places like school, college, church, bed, table, st hospital, market, prison, jail, court, temple, kg mosque, university etc. for primary purpose (for which they are being made), the article //g “The” is not used before them. But when these places are used for secondary purpose, s: the article “The” is used before them. tp ht Examples:- Children go to school every day. [Primary purpose] m He goes to temple. [Primary purpose] co His home is just beside the temple. k. [Secondary purpose] ric We go to church on fridays. [Correct] st We go to the church on fridays. [Incorrect] kg The politician was sent to jail. [Correct] //g The politician was sent to the jail.[Incorrect] s: *NOTE: It is important to understand the tp difference between primary purpose and ht secondary purpose. The primary purpose refers to work for which they are being made while secondary purpose refers to any work other than for which are they are being made. m co Examples:- k. He goes to temple. [It means he goes there to worship] ric st He goes to the temple. [It means he goes kg there to do any work other than worship] //g RULE14: Whenever adverbs like “No s: sooner”, “Hardly”, “Scarcely”, etc. are tp used in the beginning of a sentence, they are always followed by a helping verb. ht Examples:- m Hardly had I begun to speak when I was interrupted. co Scarcely had we started our meal when the k. phone rang. ric No sooner had I arrived than they all st started to argue. kg *NOTE: Note that adverbs “hardly, scarcely //g and barely” are always followed by “when”, s: while “No sooner” is followed by “than”. tp ht RULE15: Use of Reflexive Pronoun as the Object of a sentence.  m The object of a sentence is the person or thing that receives the action of the verb. It co answers the question “whom” or “what”?. k. ric There are certain words which are always st followed by an object: enjoy, avail, absent, pride, adjust, reconcile, acquit, amuse, kg resign, avenge, exert, apply, adapt, etc. //g When these words are not followed by an object in the sentence, we use the reflexive s: pronouns as their object. tp ht Examples:- (I)He enjoyed himself at the party. [Object] (II)She availed herself of the opportunity and thus got a promotion. [Object] m (III)They enjoyed picture last evening. co [Object] k. (IV)The former IPS officer acquitted himself effectively. ric (V)He absented himself from the class st kg //g In the first sentence, the reflexive pronoun s: “himself” does the function of an object. It tp can be understood by finding the answer of, “He enjoyed whom?” – “himself”. ht Similarly, in the second sentence, the word “availed” is followed by the object “herself”. However, in the third example, the word “enjoyed” is followed by the object “picture”. m Thus we do not need to put a reflexive co pronoun as its object. k. ric *NOTE: There are certain words which are not followed by reflexive pronouns as their st object: “keep, stop, turn, qualify, bathe, move, kg rest, hide, etc.” //g Examples:- s: He hid himself in the room. [Incorrect] tp He hid in the room. [Correct] ht She has qualified herself for the post. [Incorrect] She has qualified for the post. [Correct] m co RULE16: There are certain words which are never followed by Reflexive pronoun: hide, k. keep, stop, turn, shave, bathe, etc. ric st Examples:- kg He hid himself in the cave and thus saved his life. [Incorrect] //g He hid in the cave and thus saved his s: life. [Correct] tp ht In the given examples, we cannot use the word “himself” as the word “hid” is not m followed by a reflexive pronoun. co k. RULE17: Whenever the two subjects are ric connected by “as well as, together with, along with, and not, in addition to, like, unlike, with, st rather than, except, no less than, nothing but, kg more than one”, the verb agrees with the first Subject. //g s: Examples:- tp John, as well as Mary, wants to drop the ht course. [Singular verb] Ram, as well as his friends, keeps asking me many questions. [Singular verb] m The publisher, as well as the writers, co has come. [Singular verb] k. The club members, along with his owner, ric were arrested. [Incorrect] The club members, along with his owner, st was arrested. [Correct] kg He, and not his friends, are found //g guilty. [Incorrect] s: He, and not his friends, is found guilty [correct] tp ht In the given examples, the Subject prior to “as well as” is Singular, so a singular verb “wants” is used. Similarly, in the second case, “Ram” is a singular Subject which requires a m singular verb “keeps”. co k. *NOTE: We follow the same rule (i.e. the verb ric agrees with the first Subject) when two subjects are connected by “governed by”, st “accompanied by”, “but”, “besides”, “led by”, kg “run by”, etc. //g Examples:- s: California, along with Florida, is among tp the most popular US tourist destinations. ht The teachers, along with the Principal, are entering the class. [Subject is plural in this m case] co k. RULE18: Difference between Noun and Verb ric for similar sounding words, like (a)Advice – Noun st kg (b)Advise – Verb (a)Practice – Noun //g (b)Practise – Verb s: (a) Belief-- Noun tp (b) Believe-- Verb ht Examples:- m I advise you to practise a lot since practice makes a man perfect. co I'm quite good at tennis but I need to k. practise my serve. ric Practice makes a man perfect st He gave me a piece of advice kg It is my belief that my students are very talented. //g I believe my students. s: tp *NOTE: To locate noun in the sentence, ht we generally try to find the answer of ‘what’, ‘who’, or ‘whom’.  m RULE19: There are three cases of pronouns co k. The Subject Objecti Possessi Possessi cases of ive ve ve ve Persona l Pronou ns ns ric Pronou Adjecti ves pronou ns st Pronou kg n First I Me My Mine //g person we us our ours s: Second You you your yours person tp Third She Her Her Hers ht person He Him His His It It Its ---  They them their theirs m co Comparisons are usually done between the same things. So whenever we compare, k. we compare Subjective case to Subjective case and ric st Objective case to objective case. kg //g Examples:- 1.My parents scold me more than he. s: [Correct] tp 2.My parents scold me more than ht him. [Correct] 3.She is taller than me [INCORRECT] 4.She is taller than I[Correct]  m Consider the above examples; in the first case, the subjective case “my parents” is co compared with the subjective case “he”. If we k. elaborate the meaning of the sentence, it ric would be – “My parents scold me more than he does.” st In the second case, the objective case “me” is kg compared with the objective case “him”. If we elaborate the meaning of the sentence, it //g would be – “My parents scold me more than s: they scold him.” tp Both sentences 1 and 2 are correct but they have different meanings. ht She likes chocolates more than me. [Incorrect] m She likes chocolates more than I. [Correct] co k. In the first sentence, we cannot compare ric “chocolates” with the objective case “me”. st Chocolates cannot be compared with kg a person. So “me” is wrong //g However, the second sentence compares a s: subjective case with another subjective case. tp She is compared to I ht Hence it is correct. He is as tall as I. [Correct] m He speaks more frequently than she[Correct] co In the above examples, there is no object, so k. we cannot use an objective case. ric st RULE20: Who vs. Whom? kg “Who” is used as a subjective pronoun, and //g “Whom” is used as an objective pronoun. s: tp That simply means that “who” is always as a subject to a verb, and that “whom” is always ht working as an object in a sentence. As simple and important as that distinction is, many people have difficulty deciding on the proper usage of “who” and “whom” in sentences. m co To clear this doubt, simply substitute the k. personal pronoun “he/him” or “she/her” ric for “who/whom.” If he or she would be the correct form, the proper choice is “who”. If st “him” or “her” would be correct, use kg “whom.” //g Examples:- s: Mrs. Dixit consulted an astrologer whom tp she met in Sonpur. [She met him in Sonpur.] ht Jack is the man whom I went fishing with last spring. [I went fishing with him.] Jyoti is the girl who got the job. [She got the job.] m Whom can we turn to in a time of crisis? [Can co we turn to her?] k. The delegates differed as to who they ric thought might win. [Not “whom”. Here the entire clause is the object of the preposition. st Substitution is particularly helpful in cases kg such as this. They thought he might win.] //g Some more examples:- s: She is one of the professors who I think is tp a mathematician. ht He is the man whom everyone admires. She met the people who they say are helping all aspirants. m They hired the man whom we interviewed co last week. k. ric RULE21: Certain words like “separation, st excuse, mention, favour, pardon, leave, report, sight, etc.” do not take Possessive case before kg them. //g s: Examples:- tp Your separation pains me a lot and I become sad. [Incorrect] ht Separation from you pains me a lot and I become sad. [Correct]  m Consider the above two examples; in the first case, we cannot use “your” with “separation” co as “your” is a Possessive Adjective. k. However, the first sentence can be ric rewritten to make it grammatically feasible without altering its meaning, as can be seen st in the second sentence. kg //g I want your favour, will you please help me? [Incorrect] s: I want favour from you, will you please help tp me? [Correct] ht The first sentence is grammatically incorrect as we cannot use “your favour”. However it m can be written as “favour from you”, as in the co second sentence. k. ric His mention in the story received great applause from audience. [Incorrect] st Mention of him in the story received kg great applause from audience. [Correct] //g s: The first sentence is grammatically incorrect as we cannot use “His mention” as “his” is tp also a Possessive Adjective. ht However, the first sentence can be rewritten to make it grammatically correct without altering its meaning, as can be seen in the second sentence. m co At his sight the robbers fled. [Incorrect] k. At the sight of him, the robbers fled. [Correct] ric st *NOTE: Possessive Case: your, his, her, my, kg their, our, its, etc. //g RULE22: We use “each other” and “one s: another” to show that each person in a group tp of two or more people does something to the ht others. There is very little difference between each other and one another. “Each other” is generally used for two people while “one another” is used for more than two people. m co Examples:- k. All citizens should love each other. [Incorrect] ric st All citizens should love one other. [Correct] kg //g In the first sentence, “all citizens” refer to more than two people. So, “each other” s: should be replaced by “one another”, as tp in the case of second sentence. ht Peter and Mary helped each other. [Peter helped Mary and Mary helped Peter] m We sent one other Christmas cards. [We sent co them a Christmas card and they sent us a k. Christmas card] ric *NOTE: Difference between “other” and st “another”: kg Other is an adjective meaning 'different' or //g 'the second of two items'. Other can be used with singular or plural nouns. Other can also s: be a pronoun to refer to things or people. The tp plural form is others. ht However, When we use ‘an’ before ‘other’, we write it as one word: another. It means 'additional' or 'one more'. Another can be used before a plural noun when that noun is m preceded by a number, or words/phrases co such as a couple of, few etc. k. Examples:- ric Some children learn quickly but st other children need more time. kg Have you got any other questions? //g Only half of the guests have arrived. Where s: are the others? [Plural] tp This cake is delicious. Could I have another slice please? ht The investigation will take another two weeks/couple of weeks. [Plural] This place isn’t great. Is there another place we could go to? [Another can also mean ‘an m alternative’ or ‘different’] co k. RULE23: The use of “Seldom or never”: ric The word “Seldom” is an Adverb and when a st sentence begins with “seldom”, the law of inversion will be followed. kg //g Examples:- s: (I)Seldom or never he comes to my house. tp [Incorrect] ht (II)Seldom or ever he comes to my house. [Incorrect] (III)Seldom, if ever does he come to my house. [Correct] m (IV)Seldom or never does he come to my co house. [Correct] k. ric *NOTE: We can either use “Seldom or never” st or “Seldom, if ever”, but we cannot use “Seldom or ever”. kg //g *NOTE: The use of phrase “Little s: or nothing”: tp The phrase “Little or nothing” means “Hardly anything”. In this case also, we can either use ht “Little or nothing” or “Little, if everything”, but we cannot use “Little or everything”.  m Examples:- co I can find little or nothing on this table. [Correct] k. I can find little, if anything on this table [Correct] ric st I can find little if nothing on this table. kg [Incorrect] I can find little or anything on this table. //g [Incorrect] s: tp RULE24: Whenever we use “very” with ht Superlative degree, article “the” is always used before “very” i.e. “the very superlative”.  “Very” modifies present participle used as adjective, adverb and adjective in positive m degree. co Eg. It is a very interesting novel. k. However, when we use “much” with ric Superlative degree, article “the” is used before the superlative i.e. “much the st superlative”. kg “Much” is used with comparative degree //g and past participle. Eg. He is much interested. s: He is much smarter. tp ht Examples:- He is the much best student of my class. [Incorrect] m He is very the best student of my class. co [Incorrect] k. He is the very best student of my class. ric [Correct]{ It means really} He is much the best student of my class. st [Correct]{It means decidedly} kg He is much smarter than all other students. //g [Correct] s: I was very exhausted after the match. [Correct] tp RULE25: The use of “Enough”: ht “Enough” plays the role of both Adverb and Adjective. When it is used as an Adverb, it qualifies an adjective, verb, or other adverb or a word group. When it is used as an m Adjective, it qualifies a noun or a pronoun. co k. When “enough” plays the role of an ric Adjective, “enough” is placed before the noun or pronoun i.e. “enough noun”. st When “enough” plays the role of an kg Adverb, “enough” is placed after the //g adjective i.e. “adjective enough”. s: Examples:- tp He has enough sugar. [Used as an Adjective] ht She is smart enough. [Used as an Adverb] On neither of those trips was there enough sun to get any decent photographs. [Used m as an Adjective] co Test reports indicate that it develops enough k. power for the job and is flexible. [Used as an Adjective] ric You are not big enough for basketball. st [Used as an Adverb] kg A landing between the ground and first //g floors is ample enough to be used as a study. [Used as an Adverb] s: tp RULE26: The use of Adverb “as”: ht “as” can be used as an adverb with these given words – “treat, define, regard, describe, m respect,depict, portray,view, know, etc.” co However, “as” cannot be used as an adverb k. with these two words – “elect, name, think, ric consider, call, make, choose, appoint, etc.” st Examples:- kg Biology is defined as the science of //g living beings. s: He is regarded as God in India. tp She described Gary as shy. ht His latest film is described as a 'romantic comedy'. She is treated as a child. m She was elected Chair of the Board of Governors. co He has just been appointed director of the k. publishing division. He thinks her a fool. ric st The teacher called him stupid. kg //g RULE27: The use of Conjunction “although”: s: “Although”, meaning “in spite of something”, tp is a subordinating conjunction. This means ht that the clause which it introduces is a subordinate clause, which needs a main clause to make it complete. Sometimes “although” as a subordinate clause may take “yet” in the main clause. However, m “although” as a subordinate clause never co takes “but” in the main clause. k. Yet is optional. It can or cannot be used. Examples:- ric st kg Although she is rich, she thinks twice before spending a penny. [Correct] //g Although she is rich, yet she thinks twice s: before spending a penny. [Correct] tp Although she is rich, but she thinks twice before spending a penny. [Incorrect] ht RULE28: There are certain verbs which do not exist in “-ing” form. m These are: co k. POSSESSI ON ON ric PERCEPTI FEELING st kg Own See Love //g Belong Smell Know s: tp ht  Have Taste Think m co Include Hear Hate k. Possess ric Feel Want st kg Owe Appear Need //g Contain Seem Desire s: tp Compromis Resemble Wish ht e  Notice Like m Consist co k. ric st kg //g s: tp Examples:- ht I am owning a car. [Incorrect] I own a car. [Correct] m I am loving it. [Incorrect] co I love it. [Correct] This sauce is tasting strange. [Incorrect] k. ric This sauce tastes strange. [Correct] This perfume is smelling like roses. st [Incorrect] kg This perfume smells like roses. [Correct] //g She has always been hating jazz. [Incorrect] s: She has always hated jazz. [Correct] tp All the luggage is belonging to me. [Incorrect] ht All the luggage belongs to me. [Correct] *NOTE: Sometimes the word “loving” is used as an adjective, which should not be m confused with a verb. co k. Examples:- ric He is a very loving person. [Used as an st Adjective] kg He described his work in loving detail. [Used as an Adjective] //g s: *NOTE: When “have” is used in the sense of tp possession or belongingness or ownership, we cannot use “having”. However, apart from ht this, we can use “having” as perfect participle or in other cases.  m Examples:- co (I)I am having a book. [Incorrect] (II)I have a book. [Correct] k. ric (III)I am having lunch now. [Correct] (IV)Having done the work, he went to play. st [Correct] kg //g In sentence (I), “have” denotes possession, so we cannot use “having” and it should be s: replaced by “have” as rightly done in tp sentence (II). ht In sentences (III) and (IV), “have” is not used in the sense of possession or belongingness or ownership, thus “having” is correctly used in these two sentences. m co RULE29: There are certain words which are k. always used in Perfect Tense: “ever, never, ric yet, already, now, just now, until, now, always, occasionally, often, lately, recently, so far, upto st now, upto the present” kg //g Examples:- s: The concert had already begun by the time we arrived. [Correct] tp I went to Paris last summer. Have you ever ht been there? [Correct] I have not spoken to her yet. [Correct] He has gone just now. [Correct] m He went there already. [Incorrect] co He had gone there already. [Correct] Aman completed his work upto now k.. [Incorrect] ric Aman has not completed his work upto now. st [Correct] kg The train already left. [Incorrect] //g The train has already left. [Correct] s: RULE30: Subject-Verb Agreement with tp Collective Nouns: ht When a collective noun denotes that the whole group is working together on the m same task, we use a singular verb. co k. Examples:- ric The audience is watching the movie. [every st audience is watching together] kg The army is marching towards the Himalayas. [whole army (personnel) is //g moving together] s: The jury is taking a decision. [all the members of the jury is taking decision together] tp ht When a collective noun denotes that the whole group is working on different tasks, m we use a plural verb. co k. Examples:- ric The audience are taking the seats. st The army are changing their dresses. kg The jury are divided in their opinion. //g *NOTE: Words like “police, vermin, s: cattle,clergy,gentry,poultry,folk,peasantry, tp people, infantry, cavalry, etc.” are “plural ht nouns” and not “collective nouns”. Plural noun always takes a plural verb. So these words always take plural verbs. m co Examples:- The police are investigating the case. k. ric Cattle are wandering in the farm. People want to attain all worldly pleasures.. st kg *NOTE: Sometimes the word “people” is //g used in the meaning of “a country” instead of “persons”, in that case we use a singular s: verb.Peoples means countries or people tp belonging to different nationalities. ht “Peoples” in that case is correct.  m RULE31: There are certain words which are always followed by the preposition “to”. co These are: k. Prefer Superior ricInferior st kg Injurious Junior Ancillary //g Addicted Senior Exterior s: tp Known Ulterior Posterior ht *NOTE: Any word suffixed with “-ior” will always be followed by the preposition “to”. m co Examples:- k. For babies, breastfeeding is superior to bottle-feeding. ric st Too much alcohol is injurious to your health. kg Would you prefer to pay by cash, cheque, or credit card? //g They promoted a man who was junior to s: me and made him my boss. tp Paragraph 19 was merely ancillary to ht paragraph 16. I prefer tea to coffee.  m *NOTE: The words “marry” and “known” are always followed by the preposition “to” co in the Passive voice. k. Examples:- ric st Rama is married to Sita. kg I am known to him. //g I am known by him.--------> Incorrect s: RULE32: The use of phrase “as… as” and tp “so… as”: ht These blanks are filled up with the adjectives of positive degree.  m Examples:- co If we pass on the information, he's as good as dead. k. I'm not so desperate as to agree to that. ric st *NOTE: “as… as” can be used to denote both kg positive and negative sentences while “so… as” can only be used only to denote negative //g sentences. s: tp Examples:- ht He is as good as Ram. [Correct] He is not as good as Ram. [Correct] He is not so good as Ram. [Correct] m He is so good as Ram. [Incorrect] co RULE33: In a sentence depicting k. comparison, whenever the word “times” ric comes up, it is never followed by a st comparative degree. kg Examples:- //g (I)This book is three times larger than that s: book. [Incorrect] tp (II)This book is three times heavier than ht that book. [Incorrect] (III)It is twice cheaper than that. [Correct]{Times is not written , hence it m is correct} co (IV)This book is three times as large as that k. book. [Correct] ric (V)It is twice costlier than that. [Correct] st (VI)It is two times as costly as that. [Correct] kg In sentence (I), the word “times” and the //g comparative degree “larger” cannot be used s: together. The sentence should be rewritten either as sentence (IV) to make it tp grammatically correct. ht In sentences (III) and (V), there is no use of the word “times” and thus we can use the comparative degree to bring up the comparisons. m co RULE34: Some common errors of k. NARRATION: ric Indirect Speech is always a statement. st Structure of a statement kg Subject + Helping Verb + Main Verb +............. //g Structure of a question s: Wh word + Helping verb + Subject + Main tp Verb +............... ht Hence a helping verb comes after a subject in the case of a statement and before a subject m in the case of a question. co k. Examples:- ric st He asked me where are you going. [Incorrect] kg He asked me where I was going. [Correct] //g He asked me what was my name. [Incorrect] He asked me what my name was. [Correct] s: tp She says that she is a little bit nervous. [Direct ht speech was an Assertive sentence] The teacher ordered me to shut the door. [Direct speech was an Imperative sentence] m He exclaimed with great joy that he had won co the match. [Direct speech was an k. Exclamatory sentence] ric We asked him if he was ill. [Direct speech was an Interrogative sentence] st He prayed that I might live long. [Direct kg speech was an Optative sentence] //g She wished she had been rich. [Direct speech was an Optative sentence] s: But, all the indirect speeches are tp always statements. ht RULE35: If two subjects are connected by the words "or," "nor," "neither/nor," m "either/or," or "not only/but also", we use the co verb according to the nearest subject. k. Examples:- ric Either the bears or the lion has escaped from st the zoo. [Nearest subject “lion” is singular] kg Neither the lion nor the bears have escaped //g from the zoo. [Nearest subject “bears” is plural] s: Not only the teachers but also the Principal is tp happy. [Nearest subject “Principal” is ht singular] Not only dogs but also cats are available at the animal shelter. [Nearest subject “cats” is m plural] co k. RULE36: Comparison between two ric qualities of an object: Whenever two qualities of an object are st compared, we always use the word kg “more”. We don’t use comparative degree //g in that case. s: Examples:- tp This pen is redder than white. [Incorrect] ht This book is heavier than larger. [Incorrect] This shirt is more white than red. [Correct] m This umbrella is more beautiful than strong. [Correct] co k. RULE37: Whenever “more than one” or ric “many a” is used to quantify a noun, it is st always followed by a singular noun and a singular verb. kg And whenever “Many, A good many, A great //g many” are used to quantify a noun, they are always followed by a plural noun and a s: plural verb. tp Example:- ht A great many devotees are protesting to build ram mandir. Many tigers are missing from the national park. m co Structure: k. More than one + singular noun + singular verb ric st Many a + singular noun + singular verb kg A great many + plural noun + plural verb //g A good many + plural noun + plural verb s: Examples:- tp More than one student is absent today. ht [Singular verb] Many a student is absent today. [Singular verb] m co *NOTE: Also consider the k. following examples: ric st One student is absent today. [Singular verb] kg A great many students are absent today. [Plural verb] //g Many students are absent today. [Plural s: verb] tp ht RULE38: Whenever we get the word “doubt” or “doubtful” in a sentence, we use the connector either “if” or “whether”. However, in case we get the words “no doubt” and “not m doubtful”, we use the connector “that”. co k. Examples:- ric I have no doubt whether it will rain or st not. [Incorrect] kg I have no doubt that it will rain or not. [Correct] //g There is a doubt that he goes there or s: not. [Incorrect] tp There is a doubt whether he goes there or not. [Correct] ht He has no doubt if Shyam is his best friend. [Incorrect] He has no doubt that Shyam is his best friend. [Correct] m co k. RULE39: NARRATION, Sequence of Tenses: ric st The tense of the verb does not change even if kg the Reporting verb is in past tense for the following cases: //g (1)Universal truth: s: tp Examples:- ht (I)He told me that honey was sweet. [Incorrect] (II)He told me that honey is sweet. [Correct] m (III)He told me that the honey is sweet. [Incorrect] co (IV)He told me that the honey was k. sweet. [Correct] ric st In sentence (I), the sentence is incorrect kg because “honey is sweet” is a universal truth and should be written in Simple //g Present Tense in indirect speech as well. This makes the statement (II) correct. s: In sentence (III), the sentence is incorrect tp because “the honey is sweet” is not a ht universal truth as “the honey” denotes a particular type of honey. Thus, the indirect statement should follow the tense form of main clause as correctly done in m statement (IV). co k. *NOTE: Sequence of Tenses suggests that if ric the principal clause of the sentence is in Past Tense, subordinate clause will also be in the st Past Tense. kg //g (2)Historical Facts: s: tp Examples:- ht The teacher said, “Kalidas is the Shakespeare of India.” [Direct Speech] The teacher said that Kalidas is the Shakespeare of India. [Indirect Speech] m co (3)Proverbs: k. Examples:- ric st Rohit said, “Where there is a will there is a kg way.” [Direct Speech] //g Rohit said that where there is a will there is a way. [Indirect Speech] s: tp (4)Habitual Facts: ht Examples:- m He said, “I snooze my alarm every day.” [Direct Speech] co He said that he snoozes his alarm every day. k. [Indirect Speech] ric st RULE40: Use of little, the little and a little: kg We use these quantifiers with uncountable nouns according to their following meanings: //g (1)Little: Hardly any s: (2)A little: Some but not much tp (3)The little: All that is available ht Examples:- m I cannot make tea since there is little milk. [Hardly any milk] co A little knowledge is dangerous. [ Some but k. not much] ric He utilized the little water that was available. st [ All that is available] kg *NOTE: Use of few, a few and the few: //g We use these quantifiers with countable s: nouns according to their following meanings: tp (1)Few: Hardly any ht (2)A few: Some but not many (It has a positive meaning) (3)The few: All that are available m co Examples:- Few members attended the meeting. k. [Hardly any member attended the meeting.] ric There were a few members present. [Some st members were present.] kg He lost the few friends he had. [All those he had] //g s: *NOTE: Use of some and any: tp The general rule is that “any” is used for ht questions and negative sentences while “some” is used for positive sentences. Both may be used with countable and uncountable nouns. m co Examples:- k. Do we need any rice? ric No, we don’t need any rice. st We have some rice in the cupboard. kg Would you like some water? //g May I have some more chocolate? s: tp But in some cases “Some” is used ht with interrogative sentences When we know that the answer will be yes, we can use “some”. m Eg. Do you have some water??? co It is correct because we know already k. that the answer will be yes. ric st RULE41: Objective Case of the pronoun kg comes after the Preposition. //g SUBJECTIVE OBJECTIVE s: CASE CASE tp ht I me  We us m co You you k. They them He ric him st kg She her //g It it s: tp Examples:- ht None but he is going to the party. [Incorrect] None but him is going to the party. [Correct] m All except he liked the performance. [Incorrect] co All except him liked the k. performance. [Correct] ric st In the first sentence, “but” plays the role of kg preposition, so it must be followed by a pronoun of objective case. Similarly, “except” //g in the third sentence is a preposition which should be followed by the pronoun of s: objective case. tp ht *NOTE: “But” plays the role of both “Conjunction” and “Preposition”.  m Verb is also followed by the pronoun co of Objective case. k. Examples:- ric Let him do that work. [“Let” acts as a st verb here] kg They agreed to let us live there rent- free. [“Let” acts as a verb here] //g s: Some more examples:- tp Ram as well as he is going to the party. ht [Correct] There is good friendship between you and him. [Correct] m co It is to be noted that in the first sentence, “as k. well as” is not used as a preposition, so the ric subjective case “he” is correctly used. In the second sentence, “between” is a st preposition so objective case is used after it. kg //g RULE42: (1) In case of pronouns as the s: Subject, when all the three persons are used as the Subject of the sentence and are connected tp by ‘and’, the sequence of 231 of the Pronouns ht is followed if they give a Positive Sense to the sentence and a plural verb is used. m We use 2nd person, then 3rd person is co used and finally 1st person is used. k. 1 Speaker ric I st First Person kg 2 Listener You //g Second Person s: tp 3 Non Active He ht Third Person  m Examples:- co You, he and I are good friends. [the sequence of 231 of the pronouns] k. ric (2) In case of pronouns as the Subject, when st only two persons are used as the Subject of kg the sentence and are connected by ‘and’, the sequence of (2,3); (2,1); (3,1) of the Pronouns //g is followed if they give a Positive Sense to the sentence and a plural verb is used. s: tp Examples:- ht You and she are good friends. [the sequence of (2,3) of the pronouns] You and I are playing chess. [the sequence of (2,1) of the pronouns] m He and I were watching T.V. [the sequence co of (3,1) of the pronouns] k. ric (3) In case of pronouns as the Subject, st when all the three persons are used as the Subject of the sentence and are connected kg by ‘and’, the sequence of 123 of the //g Pronouns is followed if they give a Negative Sense to the sentence and a plural verb is s: used.They generally talk about some tp mistake,blame or guilt. ht Examples:- I, you and he are guilty. [the sequence of 123 of the pronouns] m I, you and he are robbers. [the sequence co of 123 of the pronouns] k. ric (4) In case of pronouns as the Subject, when st only two persons are used as the Subject of the sentence and are connected by ‘and’, the kg sequence of (1,2); (2,3); (1,3) of the Pronouns //g is followed if they give a Negative Sense to the sentence and a plural verb is used. s: tp Examples:- ht I and you have committed a crime. [the sequence of (1,2) of the pronouns] You and he are sinners. [the sequence of (2,3) of the pronouns] m I and he were guilty. [the sequence of (1,3) of co the pronouns] k. ric If all the pronouns are plural , we use st the order 123 in all cases. kg We, you and they are going to watch a movie. //g RULE43: Some Superfluousness Errors: s: Superfluousness means that more than tp required is given in the sentence. It ht means extra. Consider these examples:- (I)India broke all previous records in today’s match. [Incorrect] m co The above sentence is Superfluous as k. “records” always specifies “previous”. Using ric them together makes the statement superfluous. It should be rewritten as – st India broke all records in today’s kg match. [Correct] //g s: (II)I want wet water. [Incorrect] tp Water is already wet and we all know it. Hence this sentence contains extra words and ht superfluousness error is there. I want water. [Correct]  m In the above example, “water” is always “wet”, so we cannot use these two words co together as it will give us the superfluous k. meaning. ric (III) Suppose if you won the Oscar, what st would you do? [Incorrect] kg Suppose you won the Oscar, what would you //g do? [Correct] s: tp In the above example, the usage of 'if' with 'suppose' is superfluous. Hence, either ht 'suppose' or 'if' should be used. *NOTE: Use of “supposing if”: “If” is not needed with “supposing”. It's a wrong m usage. Use only “supposing”. co k. (IV) The army retreated back from the ric conflict zone in Kashmir. [Incorrect] The army retreated from the conflict zone in st Kashmir. [Correct] kg //g Again in the above example, 'back' won't be s: used here. 'Retreat' itself means – to withdraw, retire etc. We use only “retreat”. tp ht (V) The sage was reborn again in Vijayanagara. [Incorrect] The sage was reborn in Vijayanagara. [Correct] m co *NOTE: Never use 'again' after verbs like – k. Rebirth/Reborn/rebuild/regain/reiterate/recast etc. ric st kg (VI) Manu is equally as good as Sharma. [Incorrect] //g Manu and Sharma are equally good. s: [Correct] tp Manu is as good as Sharma. [Correct] ht In the above example, the usage of 'as' should strictly be discarded. Use only m 'equally' or 'as good as' separately. co k. (VII) The manager and the chairman decided ric on a mutual agreement on profit. [Incorrect] The manager and the chairman decided st on an agreement on profit. [Correct] kg //g In this case the usage of 'mutual' is wrong. s: Hence, use only 'agreement'. tp “Agreement” is always mutual. ht *NOTE: 'Mutual friend' is wrong to say. Instead we can say 'common friend'. m Likewise, we should say – 'common co interest' instead 'mutual interest'. k. ric (VIII) She forbade me not to leave her alone. [Incorrect] st She forbade me to leave her alone. [Correct] kg //g In the above example, ‘Not' is never used s: after until/unless/forbid/prohibit/prevent/dissuade/d tp eny/refuse/lest. ht (IX) He's a coward man/person. [Incorrect] He is a coward. [Correct] m co The usage of 'coward man' is wrong because ‘coward’ itself means a person who lacks k. courage. Hence, the use of 'man' is illogical. ric st (X) She left the house with bag and baggage. kg [Incorrect] She left the house, bag and baggage. [Correct] //g s: 'Bag and baggage' is an idiom which means tp 'with all belongings'. Hence, using ‘with’ ht with the idiom is wrong. (XI) Passing marks are thirty three. [Incorrect] m Pass marks are thirty three. [Correct] co k. The usage of 'passing marks'/'linking ric language'/'linking network'/'dressing sense’ is st wrong. Instead, we should use 'pass marks'/'link language'/'link network'/'dress kg sense'. //g s: (XII) I suddenly came across him on the train. [Incorrect] tp I came across him on the train. [Correct] ht In the above example, Omit 'suddenly' as 'come across' means to meet suddenly. m co Some more superfluous errors: k. (1)final destination. [Destination is always final] ric st (2)rough estimate. [Estimate is always rough] kg (3)rough approximation. [Approximation is always rough; not exact] //g (4)past history. [History is always past] s: (5)return back. [Return itself means tp come back] ht (6)coming future. [Future is always coming] (7)reason because. [Reason itself means cause so] m (8)consensus opinion. [Consensus itself co means collective opinion or agreement] k. (9)final conclusion. [Conclusion is always final] ric (10)Funeral service. [Funeral itself a st ceremony and service] kg //g *NOTE: “enter into” is also an example of s: superfluous error. However, when “enter into” is used as a phrasal verb, it means tp “investigation”. ht RULE44: Use of Apostrophe (‘s): Apostrophe (‘s) is not used with non-living things. m co Examples:- k. Table’s legs. [Incorrect] ric Door’s bolt. [Incorrect] st Pen’s ink. [Incorrect] kg Book’s page. [Incorrect] //g Chair’s legs. [Incorrect] s: tp These can be rewritten as: ht Legs of the table. [Correct] Bolt of the door. [Correct] Ink of the pen. [Correct] m Page of the book. [Correct] co Legs of the chair. [Correct] k. ric *NOTE: There are some exceptions to this rule. When we talk about time, st weight,distance,place, idiom, unit, kg personification, or heavenly body, we can use Apostrophe (‘s) with them. //g s: Examples:- tp One week’s vacation. [Correct] ht Four dollars’ worth. [Correct] Today's date. [Correct] The ship's bells. [Correct] m The city's parks. [Correct] co Malaysia's land. [Correct] Nature’s call [Correct] k. ric At stone’s throw[ Correct] st *NOTE: The following pronouns are already kg possessive and do not require apostrophes: //g yours, ours, its, theirs, his, hers, and whose. s: tp RULE45: Whenever a point of time in the ht past is mentioned in the sentence (i.e. yesterday, 10 days ago, etc.), we always use “Simple Past” tense. m co Examples:- k. I have gone to the market yesterday to ric purchase a car. [Incorrect] st I went to the market yesterday to purchase a kg car. [Correct] The company's shares have dived by 90p //g to 165p on the stock market last week. s: [Incorrect] tp The company's shares dived by 90p to 165p on the stock market last week. [Correct] ht RULE46: There are certain words like “unique, excellent, perfect, ideal, entire, m complete, etc.” which are never used co with “most”. k. The table is as follows ric st chief round uniqu total whole singul e ar kg Recta squar excelle Spher extre annua //g ngula e nt ical me l r s: golde deaf blind right Empt circul tp n y ar Wron impos perfec Entire extern ideal ht g sible t al solar Perfec Comp  t lete m co Examples:- k. He is the most excellent student. [Incorrect] ric He is an excellent student. [Correct] This is the most unique product of st our company. [Incorrect] kg This is a unique product of our //g company. [Correct] s: He is completely perfect. [Incorrect] tp He is perfect. [Correct] ht I think you’re the most perfect person I’ve ever met. [Correct] RULE47: Words like “Quite” and “all” are never used together in a sentence. m co Examples:- k. He is quite all well. [Incorrect] ric He is quite well. [Correct] st He has done quite all the work. [Incorrect] kg He has done all the work. [Correct] //g s: *NOTE: Do not get confused with the similar tp sounding words like “Quiet” and “Quite”. Quiet is a Noun which means the state ht of being silent. Quite is an Adverb which means completely. m co RULE48: Determination of tense based on words like “ago” and “before”: k. We generally use Simple Past Tense when the ric word “ago” is mentioned in the sentence. st In the case of “before”, we use Past kg Perfect Tense. //g Examples:- s: He had gone two seconds ago. [Incorrect] tp He went two seconds ago. [Correct] ht She had submitted the work five hours ago. [Incorrect] She submitted the work five hours ago. [Correct] m The patient died before the doctor came. co [Incorrect] k. The patient had died before the doctor came. [Correct] ric st kg In the last sentence, two actions have happened in the past, so for the earlier //g action we use “had + V3” and for the latter action we use “V2”. s: tp RULE49: Use of Possessive sign: ht (1)Common Possession: When two nouns are closely connected or implying the common possession, the possessive sign is put to the latter(last one). m co Examples:- k. 1.Ram and Shyam’s car is being decorated ric for Balram’s marriage. [Correct] 2.Ram and Shyam’s cars are being st decorated for Balram’s kg marriage. [Correct] //g s: Both the sentences are correct tp In the first sentence, there is one car which belongs to both Ram and Shyam ht [Common Possession] In the second sentence, there is more than one car which belongs to both Ram and m Shyam [Common Possession] co k. (2)Split Possession: Each of two or more ric connected nouns implying separate possession must take the possessive sign. st kg Examples:- //g Ram’s and Shyam’s car is being decorated for s: Balram’s marriage. [Incorrect] tp Ram’s and Shyam’s cars are being decorated for Balram’s marriage. [Correct] ht In the above examples, the possessive sign with each subject denotes that at least two m cars are being decorated one of Ram and co other of Shyam (i.e. Ram’s car and Shyam’s car), so a plural noun “cars” is used and it k. will take a plural verb. ric st RULE50: Some common errors of kg Possession: //g We often make mistake by using “it’s” in place of “its”. Both these terms have separate s: meanings. tp “It’s” denotes “It is”, while “its” ht denotes possession. Examples:- m The child is carrying it’s book. [Incorrect] co The child is carrying its book. [Correct] Its called a miracle. [Incorrect] k. ric It’s called a miracle. [Correct] st RULE51: Rule for using “A number of” kg and “The number of”: //g We use the following structures with these two: s: “A number of + Plural Noun + Plural Verb” tp “The number of + Plural Noun + Singular ht Verb” Similar rule is there for “A variety of” and “The variety of” m co Examples:- k. A number of students are waiting here. ric The number of students is fifty. st A number of tickets were sold almost kg immediately. //g The number of employees taking legal action over work-related disease is increasing. s: tp RULE52: Use of the phrase “It is time” , “It ht is high time” or “It is about time”: With the phrases like “It is time” and “It is high time”, we follow either of the two m conditions: co k. (1)The phrase should be followed by “to + ric V1” if there is no Subject attached to it. st kg Examples:- It is time to work hard. //g It is time to ask for a raise. s: tp (2)If the phrase is directly followed by a ht Subject, we use the verb form “V2” (past tense) after the subject.  m Examples:- co It is time he worked hard. [followed by the subject “he”] k. Gosh! It’s almost midnight. It is time we ric went home. [followed by the subject “we”] st kg *NOTE: We use the expression “it’s time + subject + past verb form” to refer to the present //g moment. s: tp RULE53: Use of preposition with the word ht “Angry”: (1)We use the preposition “with” with “angry” whenever we refer a person or living m thing for the purpose. co k. Examples:- ric I got really angry with her. st I am angry with Shyam because he did not go kg to the class. //g (2)We use the preposition “at” with s: “angry” whenever we refer something other tp than person or living thing. ht Examples:- The local residents were angry at the lack of parking spaces. m They are angry at the way they have been co treated. k. ric *NOTE: We follow the same rule with word st “Annoy”. kg RULE54: Whenever the word “know” is //g used in a sentence, it is not directly followed s: by the infinitive “to”. We use the words like “how, when, why, where, etc.” to make the tp sentence grammatically feasible. ht Examples:- I do not know what all the fuss is about. m I do not know how to make tea; hence you should help me out. co I don't know to make tea [Incorrect] k. Do you know where the Post Office is? ric st RULE55: The adverb “else” is always kg followed by “but” while the adverbs “other, and rather” are always followed by “than”. //g s: Examples:- tp It is nothing else but mere foolishness. ht Everybody else has agreed but you. He met no other person than Ram. m I think I would rather stay at home this evening than go out. co k. RULE56: The words like “sort, type, kind, ric etc.” are always followed by a Singular verb. st kg Examples:- //g This type of articles is sold in the market. This sort of camera is very expensive. s: Any kind of racism is abhorrent to me. tp ht RULE57: Use of the prepositions “in”, “Inside” and “into”: m (1)The preposition “inside” implies co “movement”. Whenever we move from k. outside to inside, we use “inside”. Examples:- ric st kg I came inside the class. He tried to get inside her mind. //g s: *NOTE: “Inside out” is completely different tp from “In” and “Inside”. It means if something ht is inside out, it has the usual inside part on the outside and the usual outside part on the inside. There is one more meaning of “Inside out” which is “completely” m co k. Examples:- ric I know my husband inside out. [completely] st She had her sweater on inside out. kg //g (2)The preposition “in” implies “static”. Whenever something referred is s: already inside, we use “in”. tp ht Examples:- I am in the class. m The chlorine in the pool makes my eyes sore. co (3)The preposition “into” implies “coming k. toward something”. Whenever we move to a ric position in or inside something, we use “into”. st It is also used to show a change in state. kg Examples:- //g Come into the house. s: He threw the letter into the fire. tp Can you translate this passage into German? ht The fruit can be made into jam. He jumped into the well. m She wove her ideas into a story. co RULE58: Use of the prepositions “with” and k. “by”. ric (1)We use “with” when we refer non-living st things. kg //g Examples:- We write with a pen. [Pen being a non- s: living thing] tp She wiped her lipstick off with a tissue. ht [Tissue being a non-living thing] He hit the dog with a stick. [Stick being a non- living thing] m co (2) We use “by” when we refer living things. k. Examples:- ric st The motorcycle was driven by a tiny kg bald man. //g The book was translated by a well-known author. s: Any painting by Van Gogh is worth a fortune. tp ht *NOTE: Whenever we talk about “watch”, we use “by”. What is the time by your watch? [ In your watch in incorrect] m co Examples:- k. She had promised to be back by five o'clock. [referring time] ric st I have got to be home by seven. [referring kg time] //g RULE59: We do not use the preposition s: “from” with the word “start”. tp ht Examples:- My exams start from Monday. [Incorrect] My exams start on Monday. [Correct] m co In the first sentence, the preposition “from” gives the meaning that my exams will start on k. Monday, it will again start on Tuesday and it ric will continue doing so. Thus, an event started once cannot start again and again. To avoid st this error, we use the correct preposition kg “on” which implies that event has started on Monday only. //g s: Some more examples:- tp He will start his preparation from Monday. ht [Incorrect] He will start his preparation on Monday. [Correct] m co However, we can rewrite this sentence k. using “from” this way:- ric He will prepare for the exams from Monday. st [Correct] kg *NOTE: “from” implies continuation. //g s: RULE60: In a general case of infinitive we tp always use the form “To + V1”. But in certain ht special cases, we use the form “To + V1+ing”. There are certain words which always follow “To + V1+ing” form:- m (1)be + used + to + V1+ing co (2)accustomed to + V1+ing k. (3)addicted to + V1+ing ric (4)with a view to + V1+ing st (5)look forward to + V1+ing kg (6)given to + V1+ing //g (7)prone to + V1+ing s: (8)devoted to + V1+ing tp (9)in addition to + V1+ing ht (10)confess to (11)disposed to (12)come to m co Examples:- She was given to staying in bed till lunchtime. k. ric These measures have been taken with a view to increasing the company's profits. st I look forward to hearing from you. kg He is rather prone to making tactless //g remarks. She has devoted herself to getting justice for s: her son. tp I am not accustomed to being treated like this. ht *NOTE: When we use the form “V1+ing” as a noun, it is called Gerund. m co RULE61: The choice between the two k. indefinite articles – ‘a’ & ‘an’ – is determined ric by sound. Words beginning with consonant sounds are preceded by ‘a’ and words st beginning with vowel sounds are preceded by kg ‘an’. //g Vowels – a, e, i, o, and u Consonants – b, c, d, f, … z s: tp Examples:- ht An NCC cadet. [Vowel sounding word] A UNICEF participating nation. [Consonant sounding word] m An umbrella. [Vowel sounding word] co An M. Tech. graduate. [Vowel k. sounding word] ric A utensil. [Consonant sounding word] st A university. [Consonant sounding word] kg A unicorn. [Consonant sounding word] //g A year. [exception][With every word that starts with “y” and “w” we use article “a”] s: A European university tp A Universit ht y A Uniform A one-rupee note m A Union co A one-eyed girl A unanimous decision. k. ric RULE62: Usage of definite ARTICLE st “The”: kg (1)Series of Mountains, Bays/Gulfs,Group of //g islands, Canals, Aeroplanes, Ships, Planes, Religious books, Government branches, s: Armed forces, Names of Deserts,Political tp parties, Musical instrument, Rivers, Oceans, Seas, and things which are “unique” in ht themselves: These nouns are always preceded by a definite article “The”.  m Examples:- co The Sahara. [Name of Desert] The Pacific. [Name of Ocean] k. ric The Nile. [Name of river] The Coral sea. [Name of sea] st The Himalayas. [Name of mountain range] kg The Guitar [Musical Instrument] //g One important point to note is that s: Names of mountain ranges are preceded by tp article “THE” but mountains peaks are never ht preceded by article “the” The Himalayas is correct but the Mount Everest is wrong. We only use “Everest” m co (2)Names of Newspaper: These nouns are k. always preceded by a definite article “The”. ric st Examples:- kg The Times of India. //g The Hindu. The Indian Express. s: tp (3)Names of Countries (Only the ones which ht are written in Abbreviated forms): These nouns are always preceded by a definite article “The”. m co Examples:- k. The USA. The UK. ric