English Grammar Booklet PDF

2023 APFC Asst. Provident Fund Commissioner EPFO UPSC ENGLISH GRAMMER Selected EPFO Officers Team YouTube – The Officers adda Do...

2023 APFC Asst. Provident Fund Commissioner EPFO UPSC ENGLISH GRAMMER Selected EPFO Officers Team YouTube – The Officers adda Download Android App – ALL Exam tricks  Rule 2..........................................................................................................................................................30 Rule 4..........................................................................................................................................................30 Rule 5..........................................................................................................................................................30 Rule 6..........................................................................................................................................................31 Rule 7..........................................................................................................................................................31 Rule 8..........................................................................................................................................................31 Rule 9..........................................................................................................................................................31 Rule 10........................................................................................................................................................31 Rule 11........................................................................................................................................................31 Rule 12........................................................................................................................................................31 English Grammar Series - Articles.......................................................................................................................31 Use of “A”..................................................................................................................................................32 Use of “An”................................................................................................................................................32 Uses of “The”.............................................................................................................................................32 Participles............................................................................................................................................................34 Types..........................................................................................................................................................34 # Present Participle...................................................................................................................................34 # Past Participle........................................................................................................................................35 Idioms and Phrases.............................................................................................................................................36 Phrases with Meaning.................................................................................................................................36 Subject Verb Agreement Rules...........................................................................................................................44 Rule 1.........................................................................................................................................................45 Rule 2.........................................................................................................................................................45 Rule 3.........................................................................................................................................................45 Rule 4.........................................................................................................................................................45 Rule 5.........................................................................................................................................................46 Rule 6.........................................................................................................................................................46 Rule 7.........................................................................................................................................................46 Rule 8.........................................................................................................................................................47 Rule 9.........................................................................................................................................................47 Rule 10.......................................................................................................................................................47 With plural number, plural verb use. e.g................................................................................................47 Hundred boys are in my class....................................................................................................................47 Note:- If after cardinal adjectives (one, two, three, four,… etc.) plural noun use and with plural noun shows certain amount, certain weight, certain period, certain distance, certain height then singular verb will use................................................................................................................................................47 E.g...............................................................................................................................................................47 1  Rule 11.......................................................................................................................................................48 Rule 12.......................................................................................................................................................48 Rule 13.......................................................................................................................................................48 Rule 14.......................................................................................................................................................48 Rule 15.......................................................................................................................................................49 Rule 16.......................................................................................................................................................49 Rule 17.......................................................................................................................................................49 Rule 18.......................................................................................................................................................49 Rule 19.......................................................................................................................................................50 Rule 20.......................................................................................................................................................50 Rule 21.......................................................................................................................................................50 Rule 23.......................................................................................................................................................51 Rule 24........................................................................................................................................................51 Rules of Adverbs.................................................................................................................................................51 KINDS OF ADVERBS.....................................................................................................................................52 COMPARISON OF ADVERBS............................................................................................................................54 Forms of Adverbs........................................................................................................................................55 Positions of Adverbs...................................................................................................................................56 Tenses.................................................................................................................................................................57 #Present.....................................................................................................................................................59 #Past Tense................................................................................................................................................59 #Future Tense............................................................................................................................................60 The case of after and before.....................................................................................................................60 Conditional Sentences........................................................................................................................................62 There are two parts of Conditional sentences............................................................................................62 Mainly There are three types of conditional sentences.............................................................................62 B. IF CLAUSE IN PAST TENSE.......................................................................................................................64 C. ‘IF’ CLAUSE IN PAST PERFECT TENSE.......................................................................................................64 D. OTHER TYPES OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.........................................................................................65 Confusions..........................................................................................................................................................65 One word substitution........................................................................................................................................68 Antonyms : 200 Words.......................................................................................................................................70 Synonyms : 200 Words.......................................................................................................................................75 Vocabulary List....................................................................................................................................................79 2  Nouns Types:  Proper Noun : Name of specific person, place or thing.  Common Noun : Name of common things like boys, chair, girls etc.  Collective Noun: Collection of some persons or things and represented as a singular noun. Ex: class , army , herd , flight etc.  Abstract Noun :Whom we cannot touch like happiness, sadness etc.  Materialistic Noun: From whom something is comprised of known as materialistic Noun. Further classifications are: Rule No: 1. Uncountable Nouns There are some rules which are uncountable nouns.  We cannot measure uncountable nouns. like ' Informations' wrong phrase.  We always use singular verb with uncountable nouns.  Plural of these words does not exist. Some examples of uncountable nouns are: Hair Scenery Information Mischief Stuff Advice Poetry Evidence Luggage Jewellery Furniture Bread Wood Wages Money Machinery Crockery Cash Help Clothing Examples:  Children are prone to making mischiefs if they have nothing to do.[Correct: mischief]  I saw beautiful sceneries in painting exhibition.[Correct: scenery]  I ate three breads today.[Correct: bread or three slices of bread] .She gave two jeweleries.[Correct: jewellery or a piece of jewellery] Rule No: 2 There are some nouns which seem to be plural but are singular. 3 Mathematics Statistics SomeDiseases: Mesals Mums Physics Physics Shingles Rickets Robotics Civics Diabetes Mechanics Billiards Gymnastics News Summons*** Innings Series Examples:  News is coming on tv.  The morale of the army was high the news coming from the front were very encouraging.  1st innings is going on.[Correct: Inning]  A 5 match series is being played between India and Australia in Melbourne. Rule No: 3 There are some nouns which to be singular but exists in plural so use plural verb with it. Children Infantry Polity Police Gentry Cattle Brethren People Examples:  There was no Gentry in function.[Correct: were]  Police has been deployed all over the route.[Correct: have] Gentry : Group of Gentlemen Infantry(Troop):Collection of soldiers Rule No: 4 There are some nouns which exists both in singular and plural form. Nature of verb depends upon sense of sentence and noun. Words:  Team 4   Committee  Audience  Jury  House Examples:  Our team is the best team.  Our team are trying their new dresses today.  A committee is formed for the welfare of society.  A committee were appointed for the welfare of society. Rule No: 5 There are some nouns which is to be plural , they also exist in form but cannot be converted into singular form. Note: Always use singular verb with them untill they specified numerial. scissors trousers jeans pants, shorts spectacles socks remains scales pliers binoculars pincers pajamas tights tweezers thanks congratulations earnings wages savings contents Examples:  A pair of spectacles have be bought by me.[Correct: has]  He read the letter and made aware of its contents.[Correct: content]  All the evidences were against and he was held guilty.[Correct: evidence, was] Numerical Adjective Noun Case When in a sentence there is a numerical adjective with a noun, we cannot use the plural of that noun if after there is another noun. Examples: Incorrect : He is a twenty years old boy. [ In this sentence we cannot use 's' with 'year' because after years there is a another noun 'boy' ] Correct: He is a twenty year old boy.  The boy is twenty years old.  Twenty kms are a long distance.[Correct: is] 5   He walked twenty kms.  Twenty kms walk is a long distance.[Correct; km]  The five members deligation will call on the president. Noun - Preposition - Noun Case Preposition: in, on, at, of, for, after, before, into, with, by, between, among,....etc Examples:  Rows upon Rows of pink marbles are to the eyes.[Correct: Row upon Row, is] Use of Apostrophe 's' : ('s) The Ram House of ram = Ram's house Rule 1 1 Never use apostrophe with non-living like wood, table, chair etc. 2. We can use (" 's ") with nouns which not come in the category of living and non-living. Ex:  America's Problems  Nature's law  A meter's length  A Kg's sugar Examples:  Ram and sham's house 6   I visited John's and Mary's house twice but found the couple absent. [Correct: John and Mary's]  His wife's secretary's mother has died. In this sentence the structure of sentence is not correct. Correct: Mother of his wife's secretary has died. Rule:2 Two apostrophe cannot come together in a single sentence. Rule: 3 We can use ";" only with the words which are ended with 's'. Ex: ‘Kalidas' work  He was late and entered the female compartment in hurry. [Correct: Women's or ladies']  We reached the fare and found that there was no place to stand.[Correct: room] Pronoun  Used in place of 'Noun'. Pronoun Examples → He, she, his ,they ,we , us , me , my , mine , I , you , it , ours , your , your , hers , her , its , their , theirs # Types 1. Nominative : Used as a subject in the sentence. 7  Examples → I , We , You etc. 2. Objective : Used as an object in the sentence on which work is going on. Examples → me , him , her , it etc. 3. Possessive : Pronouns which show possessiveness. Difference Between ' my ' & ' mine ' → ' my ' is used before the noun. → ' mine ' is used after the noun. Difference Between ' your ' and ' yours ' → ' Your ' used before the ' noun '. → ' Yours ' used after the ' noun '. 8 Table of Pronoun # OBJECTIVE PRONOUN Rule 1: After Preposition we have to use objective pronoun. Example : 9 Example : Difference between ' I ' and ' me ' ' I ' is used as a subject , which is do some work. ' me ' is worked as object on which work is going on , so it always used as a object , ∴is a objective noun and used after preposition. Rule 2: After ' Let ' 10 Objective pronoun is used after ' Let ' Examples: # NOMINATIVE PRONOUN Rule 3: After 'Than' When there is any comparison between two , then nominative pronoun is used. Examples: 11   His efforts will bring him more success than yours.  You should be true to your word. or One should be true to his word.  The dog I have bought looks more ferocious(wild) , than the one you have.  The hotel of Patna are more luxurious than those of Muzaferpur.  Yours are the same problems as mine. Reflexive Pronoun # Transitive verbs : Verbs which requires object after them, those are known as transitive verb. Example: Children fly kites. [ here fly acts as transitive verb because children fly doesn't make any sense, So noun is used to complete the sentence Those verbs which always comes along with Pronoun or noun is known as transitive verb ] Birds fly. [ Here fly is not a transitive verb ] 12 Some verb which act as transitive verbs  cut  kill  introduce  hurt  eat  absent  hit  watch  avail  cheat  prostrate  enjoy Example : We use a reflexive pronoun as object or complement when it refers to the same thing as the subject. The pronouns which are used with transitive verb as a object are known as reflexive pronoun. Reflexive Pronoun are :  he → himself  her → herself  it → itself  they → themselves  I → myself  you → yourself  we → ourselves  one → oneself Examples: 13 [ here , absent is not work as transitive verb , it is used as adjective so reflexive pronoun is not used here] He prostrated himself before his master , who had come from London after a year. The officer as well as the assistants absented themselves from the office.[ Correct ; himself ] [ In the sentence there is ' as well as ' used with which verb is changed to 1st noun or pronoun and here officer , so 'themselves' is changed himself. * Exception Transitive verb does not use reflexive pronoun.  keep  stop  bathe  turn  rest  qualify  hide Examples: 14 # In-Transitive Verb Verb which does not require object. Birds fly. Adjectives Adjectives are words that describes or modify another person or thing in the sentence. 15  Degree of adjective 1. Positive: It is used to describe the quality of noun. 2. Comparative Degree : It is used when there is a comparison between two nouns or pronouns. 3 Superlative Degree : When noun is shown as a superior out of a club or group, class etc. Superlative degree is used. Superlative degree is followed by ' the '. # Comparative Degree 16 Rule 1 1. There are some adjective which denotes absolute positions and of which comparative and superlative degrees remains the some. Rule 2 Their are some adjective which uses 'to' rather than ' than' when used to compare. These adjective has suffix - ' ior ' These adjective are: 17 Rule 3 If two adjective are separated by ' and ' , then they must be in some degree. Use of ' very , ' more ' , ' much ' Very : It is used with positive degree of adjective. More: Used with comparative degree of two. Much : It is used with comparative degree. 18 Example: 1. He is good. 2. He is very good. 3. He is better than you. 4. He is much better than you. 5. He is comparatively smarter than you. [ Correct : Smart ] Conversion of Superlative degree to Comparative degree There are two methods to change superlative degree to comparative degree Methods 1. All + Other + Plural Noun 2. Any + Other + Singular Noun Gold is more precious than any other metal. Examples: 1. He is better than all other boy of the class. [Correct : boys ] [ Method 1 ] 2. He is better than any other boy of the class. [ Method 2 ] 3. She was curious to know what it was that made him stronger and braver than any other man of his village. [ Method 2 ] 4. The Ganga is the holiest of all other rivers of India. [ ' other ' is never used with superlative degree ] Synthesis Synthesis is done between two special type of sentences which have 19  [ It is done by using conjuction ' If / but ] Example : She is more beautiful but not so altered as her younger sister. Ordering of Adjectives Size → shape → age → color → nationality → noun Example → Black American 20 year old Nigro is his best friend. Correct → 20 year Black American Negro is his best friend. Examples: 1. he wanted certain boy to make entry into the principal's chamber.[ Correct : boys ] certain → a) with ' certain ' noun used in plural form b) ' a ' is used with certain 2. These sort of men attain worldly success by hook or by crook. [ Correct : sorts ] Examples: ' These ' and ' Those ' The noun following ' these ' and ' those ' should be in plural form. 20  1. There were only two soldiers but each and every soldiers was equal to 5 policemen. [ Correct : soldier , 'and each' never be used ] here each is used as adjective. 2. Inspite of facing much problems he did not dessert the path of honesty. [ Correct : Many ] ' much ' and ' many ' much is used with uncountable nouns. many is used with countable nouns. 1. Can you tell me how many eggs and how much milk he has brought home. 2. whole the chapter of the book is full of printing mistake. 'All , Whole & Both ' ' All ' and ' both ' are followed by definite article ' the '. ' whole ' is proceeded by the definite article ' the '. 1. Her long black hair adds glamour to her looks. [ size → color ( Order of Adjectives ) ] 2. I saw an anxious pale girl. [ emotion → color ( Order of Adjective ] 3. I saw a pale anxious girl. 4. I t is a fact that mahatma Gandhi was the 1st politician of his time. [ Correct : famous ] 5. Delhi is farther from Patna than it is from kolkata. 6. You can trust this agency for the last news of this week. [ Correct : latest ] 7. He doesn't have some money to buy a new car. [ Correct : any ] ' Some ' & ' Any ' ' any ' is used with negative sentence and question 1. He felt happily to know that, his younger brother had got a prestigious job in the bank. [ Correct: happy ] Prepositions with examples A preposition is a word which shows the relationship between two objects indicating their position. Such as: 21 The book is on the table. (On shows the relationship between the book and the table) Weal ready know that for error correction, cloze test etc., prepositions knowledge is very important. Here given tips and tricks to know prepositions use better. Let’s have a look please. Some of the important prepositions are listed below PREPOSITIONS SHOWING TIME 1. At, in At in used with a definite point of time in mind. I go to my Department at 7:30 a.m. everyday. He will come at Holi. In is generally used to denote a specific time, period month, year. I play chess in the evening. Exception: At is used with noon. He comes at noon for lunch. 2. On, by On is used with days and dates. He was born on the 9th of July. I teach Wordsworth on every Monday. By refers to the latest time by which an action will be over. The meeting will break by 4 p.m. 3. For, Since For denotes a period of time and is used with the perfect continuous tense. I have been working in KR Mangalam University for the last 10 years. Since shows the point of time. It also indicates continuity. India has been independent since 1947. 4. From From refers to the starting point of an action. He is joining the new firm from the 1st of May. PREPOSITIONS SHOWING POSITION 1. At, in At refers to an exact point. 22 He lives at Nehru Place. In refers to a big area. He lives in Punjab. 2. Between, Among Between is used to distinguish two persons and things. The property was divided between Ram and Shyam. Among is used for more than two persons or things. The food was distributed among the ten boys in the family. 3.Amongst Amongst is also used with more than two persons or things but is always used before a vowel. Divide the oranges amongst us. 4. Above, under Aboveis used for higher than. The aeroplane was flying high in the sky, in fact, above the clouds. Belowis used for lower than. His output is below ours. 5. Under, over Under is used for vertically below. We sit under the tree when we have no class. Over indicates something vertically above. There is a separate room over the garage. 6. Beneath Beneath shows a lower position. The ground was soiled beneath her. PREPOSITIONS SHOWING DIRECTION 1. To is used to indicate movement from one place to another. The children go to the school every morning. 2. Towards points out a particular direction. The lion ran towards the hunter. 3. Into indicates a movement inside something. The thief entered into the room. 23 4. At indicates aim. The hunter aimed at the bird. 5. For denotes direction. I shall start for Patna today. 6. Off refers to separation. He was thrown off from the car during the accident. 7. From refers to a point of departure. We feel unhappy when we depart from our parents 8. Against shows pressure. I rested my arms against the wall. 9. Along shows the same line. I walked along the road. 10. Across means from one side. I ran across the road 11. Before denotes face-to-face. I was standing before my wife. 12. Behind means at the back of someone or something. My daughter stood behind me. 13. Beside means by the side of. The security guard sits beside the officer. 14. After refers to a sequence. The child came running after the mother. WORDS TAKING MORE THAN ONE PREPOSITION A large number of words are always followed by a fixed preposition. Example: Insist on; prevent from; fond of. But certain words take several prepositions according to the changing meanings of the word. Here is a select list of such words. 1. Accompany A. By(for living being) The Prime Minister was accompanied by the members of his cabinet. B. With(Subtle things) His lecture was accompanied with subtle analysis of concepts. 24 2. Accountable A. To(an authority or a person) All of us are accountable to God. B. For(action) We are accountable to God for our deeds and misdeeds. 3. Angry A. At(a thing). Ram is angry at Sham’s bad conduct. B. With (a person).Ram is angry with Sham. 4. Annoyed A. With(a person). He is annoyed with his younger brother. B. At(something). He is annoyed with his friend at his laziness. 5. Answerable A. To(a person). The servant is answerable to the master. B. For(something). We are answerable to our parents for our conduct. 6. Appeal A. To(person). He appealed to the judge for his release from jail. B. For (thing). He appealed for his release from the prison. 7. Arrive A. At(small place). He arrived at the railway colony. B. In(big place). He arrived in India. 8. Attend A. To(duties, lessons, work). I attend to my duties sincerely. B. On(service). Children attend on parents. 9. Authority A. On(subject). Mr. Suresh is an authority on Modern physics. B. Over(rights). The District Magistrate has authority over the Committee. 25 10. Blind A. Of(Physical). He is blind of one eye. B. To(mental). Many parents are blind to the faults of their children. 11. Communicate A. With(to make correspondence). He communicated with us on that matter. B. To(to convey). He communicated his opinion to me. 12. Compare A. With(Similar things). Shakespeare is compared with Kalidasa. B. To(dissimilar things). Life is compared to a battle. 13. Compete A. With(Person). I cannot compete with the young man. B. For(a thing). They compete for a prize. 14. Complain A. To(person). He complained to the Magistrate against Sham. B. Against(a person). He complained to the Magistrate against Sham. C. About(a thing). He complained to the Magistrate against Sham about his misconduct. 15. Confer A. On(to give). The president conferred the title of Bharat Ratna on him. B. With(a person). I shall confer with him about important topics. 16. Die A. Of(a disease). He died of cholera. B. From(a cause). He died from overwork. 17. Differ A. With(person). I differ with you. B. From(things). India differs from Japan. 18. Disqualified 26 A. From(action). He was disqualified from running the race. B. For(post or thing). He was disqualified for the post of Police Inspector. 19. Entrust A. With(in case of a person). I cannot entrust him with my money. B. To(in case of thing). I cannot entrust my money to him. 20. Familiar A. With(person). I am familiar with the Chief Minister. B. To(subject). I am familiar to French Language. 21. Fight A. With(person). We fought with the English. B. For(thing). We fought with the English for freedom. 22. Grateful A. To(person). I am grateful to Ram. B. For(thing). I am grateful to Ram for his help. 23. Heir A. Of(descendant). A son is usually the heir of the father. B. For(thing). He was a heir for a big fortune. 24. Indebted A. To(a person). I am indebted to my friend. B. For(thing). I am indebted to my friend for his help. 25. Indignant A. With(person). He was indignant with his friends. B. At(thing). The teacher was indignant at his carelessness. 26. Live A. On(to exist). A man lives on food. B. By(to depend on, to believe in). A terrorist lives by the gun. 27 27. Part A. From(persons). He parted from his friends. B. With(things). He cannot part with his money. 28. Responsible A. To(person). He was responsible to the boss. B. For(thing). We are responsible to God for our actions. 29. Taste A. Of(experience). Now you will have a taste of New York. B. For(interest). I have no taste for painting. 30. Tired A. Of(mental). I am tired of poverty. B. With(physical). I am tired with working for five hours continuously. Conjunction Rules Conjunction is a word or a group of words which connects two or more than two words, phrases, clauses, sentences etc. Types of Conjunctions Coordinating Conjunctions A coordinating conjunction joins together clauses of the same parts of the speech i.e. adverb- adverb, noun-noun, adjective-adjective. E.g. He came to meet me, but I was not at home. Subordinating Conjunctions A Subordinating conjunction joins a clause to another on which it depends for its full meaning. E.g. Since I was busy, I could not call you up. 28  Conjunction Rules: Rule 1 The conjunction both is followed by and E.g. He is both intelligent and hard working. Rule 2 The conjunction so....as / as....as is used to make comparison between two persons and things. so as is used in negative sentences. E.g. He is not so good as you. But as....as is used in both affirmative and negative sentences E.g. He is as good as you. He is not as good as you. Rule 3 Although/ Though is followed by yet or a comma(,) E.g. Though he worked hard, he failed. Although these books are costly yet the students buy them because these are useful. Rule 4 Always use the correct pair No sooner........than Hardly.... when or before Scarcely.... when or before Barely.... when or before E.g. No sooner had he solved the riddle than he was applauded. Hardly had I come out of the room before I saw him dying. Scarcely had he asked the question when Agnes slapped him. Barely had he bought the car before it was stolen. Hardly, scarcely, and barely are negative words. Do not use not, no, never with the clause containing these words. If a sentences starts with a negative word, use inversion form i.e. helping verb before the subject. Rule 5 Lest is followed by should or first from of verb. Lest is a negative word. Do not use not, never, no with lest. E.g. Walk carefully lest he should fall. Walk carefully lest he fall. 29 Rule 6 Until is time oriented and unless is action oriented. Until and unless are negative words. Do not use not, never , no, with the clause containing these words. E.g. Wait here until I return. Unless you work hard, you will not pass. Rule 7 In affirmative sentences doubt and doubtful are followed by if/ whether. In negative or interrogative sentences doubt and doubtful are followed by that. E.g. I doubt if he will come. I do not doubt that he will come. Rule 8 Always use the correct pair not only....but also. E.g. He cheated not only his friends but also his parents. Rule 9 Between is followed by and from is followed by to. E.g. You will have to choose between good and bad. She keeps singing from morning to evening. Rule 10 Neither of means none of the two. when more than two person or things are present none of is used. Either of means one of the two. when more than two person or things are present one of is used. E.g. None of his friends helped him. One of the students of your class is responsible for this loss. Rule 11 Do not use seldom or ever in place of seldom or never. E.g. The national network seldom or never telecasts good programmers. Rule 12 After rather /other, the subordinating conjunction than should be used. E.g. He has no other object than to get a handsome job. I would rather buy a scooter than a cycle. English Grammar Series - Articles 30   A, An, The, are called articles.  Articles are demonstrative adjectives.  Articles are of two type, definite and indefinite articles.  “a” and “an” are indefinite articles.  “The” is definite article. Use of “A” 1. Every singular noun which starts with consonants , starts with “a” E.g. a cat, a dog, a pen, a house, a college etc. 2. Every singular noun which starts with “E” or “U” starts with “a”. E.g. a university, a European, a uniform, a utensil 3. Every singular noun which starts with “O” but sounds like “v” E.g. a one rupee note, a one eyed man, a one way ticket. Use of “An” 1. Every singular noun that starts with a vowel and sounds like (a, e, i, o, u) E.g. an apple, an egg, an eye, an ear, an inkpot, an orange, an elephant, an army, and idiot, an American. 2. That singular noun that starts with a consonant but sounds like “a”, ”o”, ”e”. E.g. an MP, an MLA, an S.H.O( s sound like a in starting), an M.A , an hour, an honest man, an heir, an hotel ( Because they all sounds like “o” in starting) Note: only countable singular noun take “a” or “an” with them. Uses of “The” 1. With the name of celestial bodies. E.g. the sun, the moon, the earth, the starts etc. 2. Before the name of the directions if it is preceded by a preposition. E.g. the sun rises in the east and sets in the west 3. Before the name of ships, trains, seas, oceans, canals, lakes, mountains, 31 islands, dams, deserts. E.g. The frontier mail, the Arabian sea, the Indian ocean, the panama canal, the dal lake, the Himalayas, the Andaman, the bhakra dam, the sahara desert. 4. Before the name of some countries and provinces. E.g. the USA, the Punjab, the Deccan 5. Before the name of religious books, magazines, newspapers E.g. the Gita, the Indian express, the Hindustan times, the Mahabharata 6. Before the name of communities. E.g. the English, the French, the Hindus. 7. Before the proper noun which is used as common nouns. E.g. Kalidas is the Shakespeare of India, Kashmir is the Switzerland of Asia. 8. Before the name of political parties, E.g. the congress, the Janata dal. 9. Before the name of historic and public places. E.g. the Taj Mahal, the golden temple, the zoo, the library 10. Before the adjectives which have used as noun. E.g. the rich, the poor, the brave 11. Before( adjective+ proper noun) E.g. the little bunny is a shy girl 12. Before the adjectives if it is used before noun. E.g. Ashoka the great, Akbar the great 13. To make plural of proper nouns. E.g. the Guptas, the mauryas, the browns 14. Before the big ranks 32  E.g. the prime minister of India, the president of India, the principle of school 15. Before the historical events. E.g. the battle of Plassey, the battle of Panipat, the mutiny of 1857 16. Before cardinal number E.g. the second girl in the third row is my friend. 17. Before superlative degrees. E.g. the wisest boy, the most intelligent person 18. Before comparative degree E.g. She is the wiser of two 19. After” all “or “both” , but before” whole” or” same” E.g. All the boys are making noise, both the girls are pretty, the whole class is absent, their ages are the same. 20. Before the common noun which have been described in the paragraph before. E.g. There was a fox. The fox was hungry I know the man who came yesterday Participles Types 1. Present Participle 2. Past Participle # Present Participle 33   Here running is come alone without any helping verb, so from this we got to know that 'running ' is not a part of tense.  If we use only ' run ' instead of ' running ' it doesn't make any sense  So when v1 + ing comes alone, without them sentence doesn't make any sense is known as participle.  If it in the present tense ( is, are is used ) , then the participle is known as Present Participle.  Here participle is act as an adjective. # Past Participle  Used for all perfect tense forms of a verb and in the passive voice. Example: He hid the money in his recently gotten shirt. Here gotten is past participle because :  It acts as adjective because it adds the quality or describes about noun. ( Here noun is shirt )  No helping verb is used with ' gotten ' so it cannot be a part of tense.  It is third form of verb. Example : He took the gun. He shot the tiger. Having taken the gun, he shot the tiger. [ Active Voice ] Here past participle is used with having So in the active voice past participle can come as having + v3 Having been taken the gun, he shot the tiger. [ Passive Voice ] [ He : Subject of Reference ] 34  Idioms and Phrases Phrases with Meaning 1) A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush- Having something that is certain is much better than taking a risk for more, because chances are you might losing everything. 2) A blessing in disguise- Something good that isn’t recognized by first 3) Bull in china shop- One who causes damage 4) A chip on your shoulder- Being upset for something that happened in the past 5) A damp squib- Complete failure 6) A dime A dozen- Anything that is common and easy to get 7) A doubting Thomas- A skeptic who needs physical or personal evidence in order to believe something 8) A drop in the bucket- A very small part of something big or whole 9) A fool and his money are easily parted- It’s easy for a foolish person to lose his/ her money 10) A gentleman at large- An unreliable person 11) A green horn- Inexperienced 12) A house divided against itself cannot stand- Everyone involved must unify and function together or it will not work out. 13) A leopard can’t change his spots- You cannot change who you are 14) A lost cause- A hopeless case, a person or situation having no hope of positive change. 15) A man of straw- A weak person 16) A mare’s nest- A false invention 17) A penny saved is a penny earned- By not spending money, you are saving money (little by little) 18) A picture paints a thousand words- A visual presentation is far more descriptive than words 19) A piece of cake- A task that can be accomplished very easily 20) A slap on the wrist- A very mild punishment 21) A stalking horse- Pretence 22) A steal- Very inexpensive, a bargain 23) A taste of your own medicine- When you are mistreated the same way you mistreat others 24) A toss-up- A result hat is still unclear and can go either way 25) A wolf in sheep’s clothing- A dangerous person pretending harmless 26) ABC: Very common knowledge about to- Ready to, just going to 27) Above all- Mainly, especially 28) Above board- Fair and honest 35 29) According to- In the order of; on the authority of 30) Actions speak louder than words- It’s better to actually do something than hust talk about it 31) Add fuel to the fire- Whenever something is done to make a bad situation even worse than it is 32) Against the clock- Rushed and short on time 33) All (day, week, month, year) long- The entire day, week, month, year 34) All along- All the time, from the beginning (without change) 35) All and Sundry- Without making any distinction 36) All bark and no bite- When someone is threatening and/ or aggressive but not willing to engage in a fight 37) All Greek to me- Meaningless and incomprehensible like someone who cannot read, speak, or 38) All in all- Considering everything 39) All in the same boat- When everyone is facing the same challenges 40) All of a sudden- Suddenly, without warning (All at once) 41) All right- Acceptable, fine; yes, okay 42) Alpha and omega- First and last letter of Greek alphabet, means beginning and end 43) An arm and a leg- Very expensive, A large amount of money 44) An axe to grind- To have a dispute with someone 45) An eye wash- A pretence 46) An iron hand- By force 47) Apple to my eye- Someone who is cherished above all others 48) As a matter of fact- Really, actually (also: as to) 49) As for- Regarding, concerning (also: as to) 50) As high as a kite- Anything that is high up in the sky 51) As soon as- Just after, when 52) As usual- as is the general case, as is typical 53) At all- To any degree (also: in the least) 54) At heart- Basically, fundamentally 55) At last- Finally, after a long time 56) At least- A minimum of, no fewer (or less) than 57) At odds- In dispute 58) At sixes and seven- Persons who are having different opinions 59) At the drop of a hat- Willing to do something immediately 60) Back and call- At the service 61) Back and forth- In a backward and forward motion 36 62) Back seat driver- People who criticize from the sidelines, much like someone giving unwanted advice 63) Back to square one- Having to start all over again 64) Back to the drawing board- When an attempt fails and it’s time to start all over 65) Bag and baggage- with all goods 66) Baker’s dozen- Thirteen 67) Bank on- Depend on, count on 68) Barking up the wrong tree- A mistake made in something you are trying to achieve 69) Bated breath- In anxiety, expectancy 70) Beat a dead horse- To force an issue that has already ended 71) Beating around the bash- Avoiding the main topic, not speaking directly about the issue 72) Bend over backwards- Do whatever it takes to help. Willing to do anything 73) Between a Rock and a Hard place- Stuck between two very bad options 74) Between Scylla and Charybdis- Choice between two unpleasant alternatives 75) Between the cup and the lips- On the point of achievement 76) Bite off more than you can chew- To take on a task that is a way to big 77) Bite your tongue- To avoid talking 78) Black and white- In writing 79) Blood is thicker than water- The family bond is closer than anything else 80) Blow hot and cold- Having no stand, shows favor at one time and unfavor at another 81) Blue moon- A rare event or occurrence 82) Body and soul- Entirely 83) Break a leg- A superstitious way to say ‘Good Luck’ without saying ‘Good Luck’, 84) Buy a lemon- To purchase a vehicle that constantly gives problems or stops running after you drive it 85) By & by- Gradually 86) By all means- Certainly, definitely, naturally (also: of course); using any possible way or method 87) By far- By a great margin, clearly 88) By fits and starts- Irregularly 89) By heart- By memorizing 90) By hook or by crook- By any means 91) By leaps and bound- speedily 92) By oneself- Alone, without assistance 93) By the way- Incidentally 94) Call a spade a spade- Straight talks 95) Can’t cut the mustard- Someone who isn’t adequate enough to compete or participate 37 96) Cast iron stomach- Someone who has no problems, complications or ill effects with eating anything 97) Cats and bull story- Untrue story 98) Cats and dogs- Heavy rain 99) Charley horse- stiffness in the leg/ A leg cramp 100) Chew someone out- Verbally scold someone 101) Chip on his shoulder- Angry today about something that occurred in the past 102) Chow down- To eat 103) Clear- cut- Clearly stated, definite, apparent 104) Close but no cigar- To be near and almost accomplish a goal, but fall short 105) Close call- A situation involving a narrow escape from danger 106) Cock and bull story- An unbelievable tale, untrue story 107) Come hell or high water- Any difficult situation or obstacle 108) Crack someone up- To make someone laugh 109) Cross your fingers- To hope that something happens the way you want it to 110) Cry wolf- Intentionally raise a false alarm 111) Cup of joe- A cup of coffee 112) Curtain lecture- A reproof by wife to her husband 113) Cut and dried- Ready made form 114) Cut to the chase- Leave out all the unnecessary details and just get to the point 115) Dark horse- One who was previously unknown and is now prominent 116) Day in and day out- Continuously, constantly 117) Dead Ringer- 100 % identical, a duplicate 118) Devil’s advocate- Someone who takes a position for the sake of argument without believing in that 119) Dog days of summer- The hottest day of the summer season 120) Don’t count your chickens before they hatch- Don’t rely on it until you sure of it 121) Don’t look a gift horse in the month- When someone gives you a gift, don’t be ungrateful 122) Don’t pull all your eggs in one basket- Do not pull all your resources in one possibility 123) Doozy- Something outstanding 124) Down to the wire- Something that ends at the last minute or last few seconds 125) Drastic times call for drastic measures- When you are extremely desperate you need to take extremely desperate actions 126) Drink like a fish- To drink very heavily, drinking anything 127) Dry run- Rehearsal 128) Egg on- To urge somebody 38 129) Eighty six- A certain item is no longer available. Or this idiom can also mean, to throw away 130) Elvis has left the building- The show has come to an end. It’s all over 131) Ethnic cleansing- Killing of a certain ethnic or religious group on a massive scale 132) Ever and anon- Now and then 133) Every cloud has a silver lining- Be optimistic, even difficult times will lead to better days 134) Every other (one)- Every second (one), alternate (ones) 135) Everything but the kitchen sink- Almost everything and anything has been included 136) Excuse my French- Please forgive me for cussing 137) Fabian policy- Policy of delaying decisions 138) Face-to-face- Direct, personal; directly, personally (written without hyphens) 139) Fair and wide- Equal opportunity to all 140) Far and wide- Every where 141) Few and far between- Not frequent, unusual, rare 142) Field day- An enjoyable day or circumstance 143) Fifty- fifty- Divided into two equal parts 144) Finding your feet- To become more comfortable in whatever you are doing 145) Finger licking good- To become more comfortable in whatever you are doing 146) Fire and brimstone- A very tasty food or meal 147) Fire and fury- Fearful penalties 148) First and foremost- Extreme enthusiasm 149) Fishy: doubtful- Highest priority 150) Fixed in your ways- Not willing or wanting to change from your normal way of doing something 151) Flash in the pan- Something that shows potential or looks promising in the beginning but fails to deliver 152) Flea market- A swap meet. A place where people gather to buy and sell inexpensive goods 153) Flesh and blood- This idiom can mean living material of which people are made of, or it can refer to human nature 154) Flip the bird- To raise your middle finger at someone 155) Foam at the mouth- To be enraged and show it 156) Fools’ Gold- Iron pyrites, a worthless rock that resembles real gold 157) Foot the bill- Bear expenses 158) For good- Permanently, forever 159) For once- This one time, for only one time 160) For sure- Without doubt (also: for certain) 161) For the time being- Temporarily (also: for now) 39 162) Free and easy- Natural and simple 163) French kiss- An open mouth kiss where tongues touch 164) From now on- From this time into the future 165) From rags to riches- To go from very poor to being very wealthy 166) Fuddy- duddy- An old-fashioned and foolish type of person 167) Full monthy- This idiom can mean either, “The whole thing” or “Completely nude” 168) Funny farm- A mental institutional facility 169) Gall and wormwood- Source of irritation 170) Get down to brass tacks- To become serious about something 171) Get over it- To move beyond something that is bothering you 172) Get up on the wrong side of the bed- Someone who is having a horrible day 173) Get your walking papers- Get fired from the job 174) Gird up the loin- To be ready 175) Give and take- Compromise, cooperation between people 176) Give him the slip- To get away from, to escape 177) Give in- Surrender 178) Go down like a lead balloon- To be received badly by an audience 179) Go for broke- To gamble everything you have 180) Go out on a limb- Put yourself in a tough position in order to support someone/ something 181) Go the extra mile- Going above and beyond whatever is required for the task at hand 182) Good Samaritan- Someone who helps others when they are in need, with no discussion for 183) Graveyard shift- Working hours from about 12:00 am to 8.00 184) Great minds think alike- Intelligent people think like each other 185) Green room- The waiting room, especially for those who are about to go on a TV or radio show 186) Gut feeling- A personal intuition you get, especially when feel something may not be right 187) Had better- Should, ought to, be advisable to 188) Hand a gloves- Very intimate friends 189) Hard and fast- Certain 190) Hard of hearing- Partially deaf, not able to hear well 191) Haste makes waste- Quickly doing things results in a poor ending 192) Hat Trick- When one player scores three goals in the same hockey game. 193) Haughty and naughty- Arrogant and naughty 194) Have an axe to grind- To have a dispute with someone 195) Have got- To have, to possess 196) Have got to- Must (also: have to) 40 197) He lost his head- Angry and overcome by emotions 198) Head and shoulder- Superior 199) Head over heels- Very excited and/ or joyful, especially when in love 200) Heart and soul- With full devotion 201) Hell in a hand basket- Deteriorating and headed for complete disaster 202) Helter Shelter-Here and there 203) Herculean task- A tedious job 204) High five- Slapping palms above each others heads as celebration gesture 205) High on the Hog- Living in luxury 206) Hit below the belt- Contrary the principles of fairness 207) Hit the books- To study, especially for a test or exam 208) Hit the hay- Go to bed or go to sleep 209) Hit the nail on the head- Do something exactly right or say something exactly right 210) Hit the sack- Go to bed or go to sleep 211) Hither and thither- Here and there 212) Hocus Pocus- In general, a term used in magic or trickery 213) Hold your horses- Be patient 214) Hole and corner policy- A secret policy for an evil purpose 215) Hornet’s nest- Raise controversy 216) Hue and cry- Great noise 217) Hush money- A bribe 218) Icing on the cake- When you already have it good and get something on top of what you already have 219) Idle hands are the devil’s tools- You are more likely to get in trouble if you have nothing to do 220) If it’s not one thing, it’s another- When one thing goes wrong, then another, and another… 221) Ill at ease- Uncomfortable or worried in a situation 222) In a hurry- Hurried, rushed (also: in a rush) 223) In case- In order to be prepared if the meaning is in order to be prepared if something happens 224) In hand- Under firm control, well managed 225) In like Flynn- To be easily successful, especially when sexual or romantic 226) In no time- Very quickly, rapidly 227) In the bag- To have something secured 228) In the buff- Nude 229) In the heat of the moment- Overwhelmed by what is happening in the moment 41 230) In the long run- Eventually, after a long period of time 231) In the worst way- Very much, greatly 232) In time to- Before the time necessary to do something 233) In touch- Having contact 234) In vain- Useless, without the desired result 235) In your face- An aggressive and bold confrontation 236) Ins and outs- Full detail 237) Inside out- With the inside facing the outside 238) Intents and purposes- Practically 239) It figures- It seems likely, reasonable, or typical 240) It takes two to tango- A two person conflict where both people are at fault 241) It’s a small world- You frequently see the same people in different places 242) It anyone’s call- A competition where the outcome is difficult to judge or predict 243) Ivory tower- Imaginary world 244) Ivy league- Since 1954 the Ivy league has been the following universities: Columbia, Brown, Cornell 245) Jaywalk- Crossing the street (from the middle) without using the crosswalk 246) Joshing me- Tricking me 247) Keep an eye on him- You should carefully watch him. Keep an eye on 248) Keep body and soul together- To earn a sufficient amount of money in order to keep yourself alive 249) Keep your chin up- To remain joyful in a tough situation 250) Kick the bucket- Die 251) Kith and kin- Blood relatives 252) Kitty-corner- Diagonally across. Sometimes called Catty- Corner as well 253) Knock on Wood- Knuckle tapping on wood in order to avoid some bad luck 254) Know the ropes- To understand the details 255) Last but not least- An introduction phrase to let the audience know that the last person mentioned is also very important 256) Last straw- The final event in a series of unacceptable actions 257) Latin and Greek- Unable to understand 258) Leave no stone unturned- Make all possible efforts 259) Lend me your ear- To politely ask for someone’s full attention 260) Length and breadth- All over 261) Let along- and certainly not (also: not to mention, to say nothing of) 262) Let the cat out of the bag- To share a secret that wasn’t suppose to be shared 263) Level playing field- A fair competition where no side has an advantage 42 264) Life and soul- Main support 265) Like a chicken and its head cut off- To act in a frenzied manner 266) Liquor someone up- To get someone drunk 267) Little by little- Gradually, slowly (also: step by step) 268) Live-wire- Energetic 269) Loaves and fish- Material interests 270) Lock and key- In safe place 271) Long in the tooth- Old people (or horses) 272) Loose cannon- Someone who is unpredictable and can cause damage if not kept in check 273) Make no bones about- To state a fact so there are no doubts or objections 274) Method to my madness- Strange or crazy actions that appear meaningless but in the end are done for a good reason 275) Might and main- With all enthusiasm 276) Milk and water- Weak 277) More or less- Approximately, almost, somewhat, to a certain degree 278) Mumbo Jumbo- Nonsense or meaningless speech 280) Mum’s the word- To keep quiet, To say nothing 280) Narrow-minded- Not willing to accept the ideas of others Subject Verb Agreement Rules In any sentence the use of verb according to subject’s number and person is called verb agreement. 1. He comes (If Subject ‘Singular’ then Verb ‘Singular’) 2. They come (If Subject ‘Plural’ then Verb ‘Plural’) It is important to understand singular and plural for use of right form of verb. Singular Verb Plural Verb Singular Verb Plural Verb is are was were has have V1 + s/es (plays, V1 (play, go etc.) goes etc.) The difference between Verb and noun. Noun + s/es -> Plural noun ( With s/es noun becomes plural) 43 Verb + s/es -> Singular Verb ( With s/es verb becomes singular) Rule 1 If two Subjects use with ‘and’ then Plural Verb will use. E.g. Ram and Sham are coming. Rule 2 If two or more than two Nouns or adjectives use with and but they use only for one person, then Singular Verb will use. My friend, philosopher and guide have come. (change ‘have’ to ‘has’) Slow and steady win the race. (change ‘win’ to ‘wins’) Fish and chips is my favorites dish. (Correct) Note - i) If two uncountable nouns use with ‘and’, and act as subject then plural verb will use. E.g. Poverty and misery come together. (Correct) Rule 3 If two subjects add with “as well as, with, alongwith, together with, and not, in addition to, but, besides, except, rather than, accompanied by, like, unlike, no lessthan, nothing but” then verb will use according to first subject. E.g. 1.Ram as well as his parents is coming. 2.The captain along with the sailors was drowned. 3.My father unlike my uncles is very strict. Rule 4 If use of Article only with 1st Subject then it means only one man or object. So Singular Verb will use. e.g. 1) A white and black gown was bought by her. 2) Churchil was a great orator and a great politician of his time. (Incorrect) Churchil was a great orator and politician of his time. (Correct) But if use of Article with every Subject means different subjects and objects. So use Plural Verb. E.g. 44  The director and the producer have come. (Correct) Rule 5 If two subject add with ‘neither….nor, either…..or, not only….but also, nor, or and none- but,’ then verb will be according to nearest subject. E.g. 1.Neither Ram nor Sham has come. 2.Either Ram or his friends have come. 3.Has Ram or Sham come? Rule 6 ‘Neither of’….means ‘no one from two’. ‘none of’….means ‘no one from more than two’. E.g. Neither of his four sons looked after him. (Incorrect) None of his four sons looked after him. (Correct) Either of…. Means one out of two. One of…. Means one out of more than two. E.g. Either of the five members is at fault. (Incorrect) One of the five members is at fault.(Correct) Note:- With Both not cannot use because for ‘no one from two’ neither of will use. E.g. Both of them did not take the exam. (Incorrect) Neither of them look the exam. (Correct) Rule 7 Some noun by form its plural, but by meaning it is singular. With this we use singular verb. E.g. 1) Measles, Mumps, Rickets etc. 2) Billiards, Darts, Draughts etc. 3) The United States, The West Indies, etc. 4) The Arabian Nights, Three Musketeers etc. 5) Physics, Economics, Civics, Statistics, Pol. Science etc. E.g. 45 1) Mathematics is an interesting subject. 2) Politics is not my cup of tea. Note- If Statistics use as data, Mathematics use as Calculation and Politics use as Political views then its use will be plural. e.g. Statistics have revealed multiple scams in the organization of commonwealth games. Rule 8 In a sentence a verb is according to the main subject. We usually place it with according to its nearest subject, but it is wrong. E.g. 1) The quality of apples is good. 2) He and not his parents is guilty. 3) The appeal of the victims for the transfer of the cases related to riots to some other states has been accepted. Rule 9 With Collective noun always use Singular Verb. E.g. 1) The herd of cows is grazing in the field. 2) The committee has unanimously taken its decision. Note:- But if there is some problem in Collective Noun or each person is mention then use plural verb. E.g. 1) The jury are divided in their opinion. 2) The audience have taken their seats. Rule 10 With plural number, plural verb use. e.g. Hundred boys are in my class. Note:- If after cardinal adjectives (one, two, three, four,… etc.) plural noun use and with plural noun shows certain amount, certain weight, certain period, certain distance, certain height then singular verb will use. E.g. 1.Hundred rupees is in my pocket. 46  2.Ten mules is a long distance to cover on foot. Rule 11 If any Relative Pronoun(Who, which, that etc.) use to add a Subject and a Verb, then Verb would be according to that Subject which is antecedent to that Relative Pronoun. E.g. 1) She is one of the noblest women that (R.P.)hashave ever lived on this earth. 2) I am not one of those who (R.P.) will trust everyone whom I meet they meet. Always understand the meaning of the sentence. Second sentence meaning is ‘I am not from those people, who believe on that whom they meet.’ So Don’t use I meet, use They meet. Rule 12 Each, Every, Everyone, Someone, Somebody, Nobody, None, One, Any, Many a, More than one means singular from their meaning. With this Singular verb, Singular noun, Singular Adjective & Singular noun use. E.g. 1) Each student has come. 2) Each boy and each girl has come. 3) One must tolerate one’s friend as well as his one’s enemy 4) Many a student have has not done their home work. 5) More than one man(S.N.) was(S.V) present there. Note:- Watch use of ‘many’ in below sentences:- E.g. 1) Many a man has come. 2) Many men have come. 3) A great/ A good many men have come. Rule 13 If after each, every, one etc., ‘of’ is using, so, the noun or pronoun which comes after ‘of’ will be plural but the verb, adjective, pronoun after that will be Singular. E.g. One of the boys/ them(Noun/Pronoun (Plural)) has done the his work. Rule 14 47 After Plural Noun or Plural Pronoun use of ‘each’, then it will be treated as Plural and Plural Verb will be use will be used with this. E.g. We(P.S.) each have(P.V.) a duty towards our nation. (Correct) Rule 15 Use of Indefinite Pronoun- ‘One’ as the subject of sentence, then with this singular verb will use and for this Singular Adjective/ Pronouns- one’s, one, oneself will be used, not he, him, himself etc. E.g. One should keep his promise. (Incorrect) One should keep one’s promise. (Correct) Rule 16 Fictional sentences which starts with if, as if, as though, suppose, I wish, in case or would that. After this any number or person’s subject will be used, plural verb ‘were’ will use, not was. E.g. 1) I wish, I were a bird. 2) If he were rich, he would help others. Rule 17 In Optative Sentences, with Singular Subject, plural verb will use. E.g. 1) God(S.S) save(P.V) the king. 2) Long live(P.V) the Queen(S.S). Rule 18 A number of/A large number of/A great number of use with Plural Countable Noun and with this Plural Verb will use. E.g. 48 A number of students were present. (Correct) Note:- But use of ‘The number of’ for certain number, then after this Plural Subject will use and it will use with Sentence’s Subject with Singular Verb. E.g. The number of boys(P.S) are(P.V) fifty. (Incorrect) The number of boys(P.S) is(S.V) fifty. (Correct) Rule 19 If Amount of/quantity of use with Uncountable noun, then it will use with Sentence’s subject and with this Singular Verb will use. E.g. The amount of money(U.N) are(P.V) not sufficient. (Incorrect) The amount of money(U.N)is(S.V) not sufficient. (Correct) Rule 20 If ‘All’ use as uncountable, then it will treat singular, and with this Singular Verb will use. E.g. All is(S.V) well that ends(S.V) well. But use of ‘All’ as quantity of people or good, then it will treat Plural and with this Plural Verb will use. E.g. All are(P.V) well at home. Rule 21 Furniture, advice, work, evidence, equipment, news, information, luggage, baggage, percentage, poetry, knowledge, dirt, traffic, electricity, music, breakage, stationary, confectionary, pottery, bakery, crockery, behavior use as Uncountable Nouns. So with this Singular verb will use. 1) The scenery(S.S) of Kashmir has(S.V) enchanted us. 2) I passed but the percentage(S.S) of marks was(S.V) not good. Rule 22 Some Nouns are always use as Plural Nouns. It cannot be make Singular, if we cut ‘s’ at the end of it. It also looks like Plural, and it also use as Plural. 49 Scissors, tongs, pliers, pincers, bellows, trousers, pants, pajamas, shorts, gallows, fangs, spectacles, goggles, binoculars, sunglasses, Alms, amends, archives, arrears, auspices, congratulations, embers, thanks etc. E.g. 1) Where are my pants? 2) Where are the tongs? 3) The proceeds were deposited in the bank. Rule 23 Some Nouns looks Plural, but use as Singular. It always use as Singular. E.g. News, Innings, Politics, Summons, Physics, Economics, Ethics, Mathematics, Mumps, Measles, Rickets, Billiards etc. e.g. 1) No news is good news. 2) Politics is a dirty game. Rule 24 Some Nouns look like Singular, but us as Plural. E.g. Cattle, infantry, poultry, peasantry, children, gentry, police, people etc. With these ‘s’ will never use. Like Cattles, childrens are wrong. e.g. 1) Cattles are grazing in the field. 2) Our infantry have marched forward. 3) Police have arrested the thieves. Rules of Adverbs An Adverb a word which modifies a verb or an adjectives or another adverb. 50  FOR EXAMPLE In the example above ‘danced’ is a verb which is being modified by the adverb “beautifully”. In the example above ‘beautiful’ is an adjective which is being modified by an adverb ‘very’. KINDS OF ADVERBS 1. ADVERBS OF MANNER Adverbs of Manner tell us the manner or the way in which something happens. They answer the Question ‘How?’ Adverbs of Manner mainly modify verbs. 51   He speaks slowly. (How does he speak?)  They helped us cheerfully. (How did they help us?)  James Bond drives his cars fast. (How does James Bond drive his cars?) 2. ADVERBS OF PLACE Adverbs of place tell us the place where something happens. They answer the question ‘where?’ An adverb of place mainly modifies verbs.  Please sit here. (Where should I sit?)  They looked everywhere. (Where did they looked?)  Two cars were parked outside. (Where were two cars parked?) 3. ADVERBS OF TIME Adverbs of time tell us something about the time that something happens. They answer the question ‘when?’ Adverbs of Time mainly modify verbs.  He came yesterday. (When did he came?)  I want it now. (When do I want it? ) or they can answer the question ‘how often?’  They deliver the newspaper daily. (How often do they deliver the newspaper?)  We sometimes watch a movie.(How often do we watch a movie?) 4. ADVERBS OF DEGREE Adverbs of degree tell us the degree or extent to which something happens. They answer the question ’how much?’ or ‘to what degree?’ Adverbs of degree can modify verbs, Adjectives or other Adverbs.  She entirely agrees with him. (How much does she agree with him?)  Mary is very beautiful. (To what degree is Mary beautiful? How beautiful is Mary?)  He drove quite dangerously. (To what degree did he drive dangerously? How dangerously did he drive?) 5. ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY Adverbs of frequency tell us how many times the action occurs or occurred or will occur. Examples: Rarely, daily, sometimes, often, seldom, usually, frequently, always, ever, generally, monthly, yearly.  She never smokes.  He is always late for class.  They always come in time.  Barking dogs seldom bite.  The employees are paid monthly.  The employees are paid every month. 52  COMPARISON OF ADVERBS There are three degrees of comparison in adverbs the positive, the comparative, the superlative. The adverbs form their comparatives and superlatives using –er and –est and more and most. Adverbs that end in –ly use the words more and most to form their comparatives abd superlatives. The one-syllable adverbs use –er in the comparative form and –est in the superlative form. Positive Comparative Superlative Early Earlier Earliest Fast Faster Fastest Hard Harder hardest High Higher Highest Late Later Latest Hot Hotter hottest Loud Louder Loudest Near Nearer Nearest Soon Sooner Soonest Adverbs which end in-ly or have three or ‘more’ syllables each form the comparative with more and the superlative with ‘most’. Positive Comparative Superlative Angrily More angrily Most angrily Brightly More brightly Most brightly Dimly More dimly Most dimly Freely More freely Most freely Gladly More gladly Most gladly Heavily More heavily Most heavily Loudly More loudly Most loudly Quietly More quietly Most quietly Sweetly More sweetly Most sweetly Terribly More terribly Most terribly The comparative form is used to compare two things.  We must not reach there later than 7o’clock/  You speak more loudly than a loudspeaker.  Sirius shines more brightly than all the other stars. The superlative form is used to compare three more things.  He arrived the earliest, so he had to wait for the others. 53  Why do you have to speak the most loudly of all the meetings?  Of all the girls, your sister sang the most sweetly. It is not correct to use –er and more together, -est and most together.  The tree is more taller than the giraffe. (Incorrect) The tree is taller than the giraffe. (correct)  This turkey is the most oldest in the farm. (incorrect) This turkey is the oldest in the farm.(correct) Some adverbs form the comparative and the superlative irregularly. Positive Comparative Superlative Badly Worse (than) Worst (the) Far Farther Farthest Far Further Furthest Little Less Least Much/many More Most Well Better Best Examples:  Of the two teddy bears, which do you like better?  This has to be the farthest I have ever walked in my life. Forms of Adverbs There are three forms of adverbs: adverbs formed by adding -ly to an adjective, adverbs that share identical words with an adjective, and adverbs not derived from an adjective or any other word. 1. Most adverbs are formed by adding -ly to an adjective o He had a sudden heart attack while jogging. (Adjective) o He suddenly had a heart attack while jogging. (Adverb) o She had a quick walk to get there on time. (Adjective) o She walked quickly to get there on time. (Adverb) 2. Adverbs that share identical words with an adjective o He found the exam quite hard. (Adjective) o He failed his exam as he didn't try very hard. (Adverb) o The two brothers live on opposite sides of the city. (Adjective) 54 o She has a brother who lives opposite to her. (Adverb) 3. Adverbs such as as, even, how, never, next, now, rather, so, soon, still, then, too, etc. are not derived from an adjective or any other word.  He doesn't even know where the Pacific Ocean is.  He said he had never been to a circus.  She has got rather a lot of money to spend at this time of the month.  She has eaten two big pizzas and is still hungry 4. Converting a number of adjectives to adverbs by adding -ly entails removing a letter as shown in the following:  by adding –ly or –ally to the end of an adjective (quick –quickly, heroic –heroically),  by adding –ly after removing the last –e from an adjective (comfortable– comfortably,possible–possibly), or  by dropping the last y from an adjective and replacing it with –ily (easy–easily, happy– happily). 5. Adverbs are also formed from other parts of speech such as noun (accident)and verb (hurry), and from present participle (frightening).  She deleted my file by accident. (Noun)  She accidentally deleted my file. (Adverb)  Nick hurried to answer the telephone. (Verb)  Nick moved hurriedly to answer the telephone. (Adverb)  He's frightening us with the speed he's driving. (present participle)  He's driving frighteningly close to the edge of the pavement. (Adverb Positions of Adverbs Adverbs occupy different positions in a sentence. 1. At the beginning of a sentence before the subject Sometimes she gives me a lift to work. Fortunately we got home before it started to rain. Suddenly all the lights went out. 2. After the auxiliary verb and before the main verb The father was tragically killed in a road accident. We do occasionally go bird-watching. 55  The rain has already stopped when we arrived. 3. After the auxiliary verb (be) that is used as the main verb She is always quick to point out other people's faults. As usual, they are very late. The boys were incredibly lucky to be alive after what happened. 4. Before the main verb if there is no auxiliary verb Their parents often go to the cinema. She reluctantly agreed to his proposals. Your fat uncle accidentally knocked my vase of fresh flowers over. 5. After the main verb if there is no auxiliary verb The sisters dressed beautifully for the occasion. The tourist looked carefully at the antique before she bought it. She spoke loudly to the crowd on women's issues. 6. At the end of a sentence He admitted punching and kicking the man repeatedly. Our old neighbor fell and hurt her leg badly. Hey, you have not pronounced my name correctly. Tenses In a series of sharing English grammar notes, today I am sharing Tenses. 56 Present continuous Present simple present of be + active participle base form/s-form I am reading I/you/we/they read you/we/they are reading he/she/it reads he/she/it is reading Negative I am not reading I/you/we they do not read you/we/they are not reading he/she/it does not read he/she/it is not reading Questions am I reading? do I/you/we/they read? are you/we/they reading? does he/she/it read? is he/she it reading? Past Continuous Present Perfect Continuous Past of be + active participle Present of have + been + active participle I/he/she/it was flying you/we/they I/you/we/they have been waiting were flying he/she/it has been waiting Negative I/he/she/it was not flying I/you/we/they have not been waiting you/we/they were not flying he/she/it has not been waiting Questions was I/he/she/it flying? have I/you/we/they been waiting? were you/we/they flying? has he/she/it been waiting? Present Perfect Past simple: present of have + past Past form participle I/you/we/they have opened someone opened he/she/it has opened Negative I/you/we/they have not someone did not open opened he/she/it has not opened Questions have I/you/we/they did someone open? opened? has he/she/it opened? Past Perfect Past Perfect Continuous had + past participle had been + active participle someone had invited someone had been going 57 Negative someone had not invited someone had not been going Questions had someone invited? had someone been going? #Present Present Simple Ram plays cricket. Sub + V1 + Object Note: 's' is used according to subject, always use 's' if subject is singular Present Continuous Ram is playing cricket. Is / Am / Are + V1 + ing Sub + V1 + ing+ Object Present Perfect Continuous Tense Ram has been playing cricket since morning or for two hours. { Has + Been + V1 + ing + time [since or for] } Present Perfect Tense Ram has played cricket. Has / Have + V3 + Object #Past Tense Past Indefinite Ram played cricket. [ Sub + V2 ] 58 Past Continuous Ram was playing cricket. [ Sub + Was / Were + V1 + ing ] Past Perfect Continuous Tense Ram had been playing cricket since morning or for two hours. { Had + Been + V1 + ing + time [since or for] } Past Perfect Tense Ram had played cricket. [ Sub + Had + V3 ] #Future Tense Future Indefinite Modals ( will/shall) always use with 1st form of verb. Ram will play cricket. Future Continuous Ram will be playing cricket. Sub + will/shall+be+ V1 + ing+ Object Future Perfect Ram will have played cricket. (always use 'have' with 'will') Future Perfect Continuous Ram will have been playing cricket since morning. Example : I ___(return) my book in the library yesterday. The case of after and before 59   The passenger ____ reached the station before the train _______(arrive).[had,reached (V2) ]  The doctor came after the patient died(V3). Conditional Statements If + Present Indefinite + Future Indefinite + Obj If + Past + Indefinite + would + V1 + Obj If + Past Perfect + would + Have + V3 + Obj Examples: 1. If I will go to Delhi, I will Meet her. [Correct:If I go to Delhi] 2. She will come to meet me as soon as I will reached Delhi.[Correct: I reach Delhi] Conditional Words o As soon as o If o As If o If wish o Unless o Until o When o When ever 3. Unless you will not take care of yours. you will not recover. 4. Until the train will not gets the signal. It will not arrive. [ always use 's' or 'es' with verb according to the subject] 5. Ram had a car. [ had = main verb (past indefinite)] 6. Ram had had a car. [past perfect] [ has had had ; be was been] 7. Sub + Main Verb + V3 +Obj 8. She was a good girl. [past Indefinite] 9. She had been a good girl.[past perfect] 60  10. If I was a bird, I would fly in the sky. [ Correct :were] 11. Present wish = Past indefinite 12. [ never depends on subject] 13. If we had ___ mohan in our team we would have won the match. [ Correct : had ] 14. Past wish = Past Perfect 15. If I had seen you, I would ____ stop my car. [ Correct: Have] 16. 17. He scolded me as if he was my boss. [ Correct: Were] 18. [ Never use 'was' in conditional statement after if or as ] Conditional Sentences In conditional sentences below words will definitely come. 1. If……, 2. Provided 3. As soon as…… no sooner…… than 4. When……. 5. Unless……, Until……, There are two parts of Conditional sentences 1. If Clause 2. Main clause Mainly There are three types of conditional sentences A. If clause in present tense B. If clause in past tense C. If clause in past tense D. Other types of conditional sentences A. IF CLAUSE IN PRESENT TENSE General formula- If + Simple present, simple future  In this type of sentences ‘If Clause’ is in Simple Present and ‘Main clause’ is in Simple Future. 61  If I will come to Delhi, I will meet you. (Incorrect) If I come to Delhi, I will meet you. (Correct) If two work is in future back to back, and second work is depend on first work, then first work is in Simple Present Tense and second work is in Simple Future Tense. Some examples:- 1. She will come to meet you as soon as you will reach Delhi. (Incorrect) She will come to meet you as soon as you reach Delhi. (Correct) 2. If the government will be become strict, corruption will surely finish. (Incorrect) If the government becomes strict, corruption will surely finish. (Correct) 3. I will help him provided he will mend his ways. (Incorrect) I will help him provided he mends his ways. (Correct) 4. Unless he will not take care of his health, he will not recover. (Incorrect) Unless he takes care of his health, he will not recover. (Correct) 5. There will be rush at the platform when the train will arrive. (Incorrect) There will be rush at the platform when the train arrives. (Correct) In above sentences of If don’t use will/shall/would Note:- In below sentences ,After sub+ will/shall don’t use If, as soon as, provided, before, after, until, unless, in case, when, lest. 1. With ‘Unless or until’ don’t use ‘not’.(See sentence 4) 2. In Conditional Sentences after when don’t use will/ shall.(See sentence 5) If the sentence is in completely present form then it can be in‘Main clause’ simple present. e.g. 1. If it rains, the schools remain closed. If there is possibility in sentence then in place of will, ‘may/might’ will be use. 1. If it rains, the students may not come for class. 2. If the fog doesn’t clear, the plane may get late. If the sentence shows order then in place of ‘will’, ‘May’ will use. e.g. 1. If you finish your work, you may go home. 62  If any sentence shows Advise/ suggestion then in place of will, should/must be use. e.g. 1. If you want to remain healthy, you should exercise daily. 2. If you do not know him, you must not open the door. If any sentence shows etiquette/manner then could, may will definitely be use. e.g. 1. If you meet him, could you tell him to call me up? 2. If you come to Delhi, would you come to meet me? In ‘If clause’ In place of simple present tense, present continuous tense can also be use. e.g. 1. If you are waiting for the bus, you should better take a taxi. 2. If you are not reading the newspaper, you should let others read it. In ‘If clause’ present perfect tense can also be use. 1. If you have finished the work, you may leave. 2. If they have bought tickets, they will surely go to see the movie. B. IF CLAUSE IN PAST TENSE General formula- If + Simple Past, Subject + would + V1 e.g. If I had money, I would lend it to you.  This type of sentence shows ‘improbability’. In above sentence ‘If I had money’ clearly shows that ‘there is no money. C. ‘IF’ CLAUSE IN PAST PERFECT TENSE General formula- If + Past Perfect, Sub + would + have +V3 Example:- If I had seen you, I would have stopped my car.  In this type of sentence. The work has shown in ‘If clause’ sentence, that work has shown not done. Means ‘If I had seen you’ shows that ‘I had not seen you’.  In this type of sentence ‘If’ can be replace by ‘had’. Then the formula Had + Subject + V3 + obj, subject + would + have + V3 63  Example:- Had I seen you, I would have stopped my car. THREE IMPORTANT FORMULAE If + Present Indefinite, Simple Future If + S + had + V3, S + would + have + V3 If + S + V2 , S + would + V1 D. OTHER TYPES OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES i) Imaginative sentences General Formula- If + subject + were, subject + would + V1 e.g. If I were a bird, I would fly in the sky.  For imaginative sentences with all subjects ‘were’ will be use. For below sentences was will not use. If, as though, in case, as if, would that and I wish. e.g. He scolded me as if he was my father. (Incorrect) He scolded me as if he were my father. (Correct) ii) In ‘If clause’ sentences ‘Unless’ so long, as soon as, when, provided, suppose, in case, but, for can also be use. e.g. (1) Unless you work hard, you will not pass. Note:- with Unless, ‘not’ will not use. Unless you work hard we mean ‘If you do not work hard.’ Means Unless + affirmative = If + negative. 1. I shall support him so long as I am alive. 2. As soon as the train comes, there will be rush for seats. 3. When he comes to Delhi, I will go to meet him. Confusions Certain verbs do not have ING form. It means that these verbs will not be used in either continuous tense or Perfect continuous tenses: Verbs of perception :- see, taste, smell prefer, hear, please, notice recognize Verbs of Thinking process :- Think, know, mean, mind, remember, suppose Verbs of showing possession :- Own, have, belong, comprise, possess, contain, consist 64 Verbs expressing feeling or state of mind :- Believe, like, dislike, love, adore, want, wish, desire, hate, agree, trust, imagine Verbs in general :- Look, seem, appear, resemble, cost, require, become, hope, refuse Some nouns look plural and they are always used as plurals : Scissors, tongue, pliers, pincers, bellows, trousers, pants, pajamas, shorts, gallows, fangs, spectacles, goggles, binoculars, eyeglasses, Alms, amends, archives, arrears, auspices, congratulations, embers, fireworks, lodgings, outskirts, particulars, proceeds, regards, riches, remains, savings, shambles, surroundings, tidings, troops, tactics, thanks, valuables, wages, belongings, braces etc. Some nouns look plural but in meaning they are singulars therefore they are always used as singular verbs :- News, innings, politics, Summons, Physics, Economics, Ethics, Mathematics, Mumps, Measles, Rickets, Shingles, Billiards, Draughts, Athletics etc. Some nouns look singular but always used as plural :- Cattle, cavalry, infantry, poultry, peasantry, children, gentry, police, people Some nouns are used always as singular form. These are uncountable nouns and therefore we don’t use article a/an before them. Scenery, poetry, Furniture, Advice, information, hair, business, mischief, bread, stationary, crockery, luggage, baggage, postage, knowledge, wastage, money, Jewellery, breakage, equipment, work, evidence, word(when it means discussion, message or conversation), paper etc. Some nouns are same in both singular and plural forms :- Deer, sheep, series, species, fish, crew, team, jury, aircraft, counsel etc. With two subjects, we use verb according to first subject :- First subject With Second subject Verb Along with (According to the subject) Together with As well as And not Like/ unlike Besides Rather than But except In addition to For example :- 1. All but he him has have followed. 65  2. The captain along with all the sailors has have sunk drowned. 3. My father unlike my uncles is very strict. 4. I and not my friends am are to be blamed. With two subjects, we use verbs according to the nearest subject : Neither First nor Second Verb(according either subject or subject to nearest subject) nor or Not only but also For example 1. Neither they nor I am guilty of the act. 2. Aren’t they or I guilty of the fact? 3. Either Rohit or his Parents have taken a wrong decision. 4. Has Rohit or his parents taken a wrong decision? Not only………….. but also Neither……………. nor Either………………. or Hardly……………… when Scarcely…………… when No sooner………… than Lest………………….. should Superior…………... to Inferior…………….. to Senior………………. to Junior………….. to Prefer…………… to Admittance to; uses between and among; discussed about; invention/discovery; each other/one another; eminent/imminent; wear/put on; put up/ put out/ put off; 1. It’s time (high time) I should complain complained against him. (with “high time” always use Verb 2nd form) 2. It’s time to have fun. 3. By the time I reach the station, the train will have left. (Present indefinite & Future perfect) 4. By the time I reached the station, the train had left. (Past indefinite & Past perfect) 66 5. We have reached the moon. 6. We reached the moon on 22nd Oct 1984. 7. The judge tested the accused to see if he would could read English. 8. Some of the people were standing on the street watch watching cricket match, while others were sitting. 9. Martin Luther King was one of the leaders who has have followed Mahatma Gandhi. 10. My sister asked me that how long I would stay there. 11. The cruel lady made her step daughter to do all the household chores. 12. You can eat as much as you can at the newly lunch launched bar. 13. Sam is working has been working in a bank in Chennai for the past five years. 14. People living in low-lying areas find it difficult to cope up with the floods. 15. The manager told the boys that one ought to work hard to earn his one’s living. 16. Kalidas is a the Shakespeare of India. 17. The more you think of it, the worse it becomes. 18. My elder brother asked me what was I was doing. 19. We shall go out if it does not rains rain. 20. While he was working at the construction site, the block of wood suddenly hit his right shoulder. 21. The weather in the region has been pleasant recently. One word substitution 1. Able to use the left hand and right hand equally well - Ambidextrous 2. A man who hates marriage - Misogamist 3. A person who enters without any invitation - Intruder 4. The words with opposite meanings used together - Oxymoron 5. A person leaving his native country to settle in another - Emigrant 6. One who compiles a dictionary - Lexicographer 7. Too much official formality - Red tapism 8. One who devotes his life to the welfare and the interests of other people - Altruist 9. A person who opposes another - Antagonist 10. A person who does not want to see the realities of life and tries to escape - Escapist 11. A game in which in which no one wins - Drawn 12. What cannot be heard - Inaudible 13. One who knows many languages - Polyglot or multilingual 14. A place where everything is perfect - Utopia 15. A