1. INTRODUCTION.pptx

GROUND RULES FOR THE CLASS 1. Lateness to the lecture is unacceptable, so do well to be on time. 2. The use of electronic gadgets is STRICKLY not allowed during lectures. 3. Those who prefer to chat in class instead of paying attention should rethink because I reserve the right to wa...

GROUND RULES FOR THE CLASS 1. Lateness to the lecture is unacceptable, so do well to be on time. 2. The use of electronic gadgets is STRICKLY not allowed during lectures. 3. Those who prefer to chat in class instead of paying attention should rethink because I reserve the right to walk anyone out so that there is peace and harmony in the class. 4. Feel free to ask relevant questions during the lecture 5. You can see me in my office if you need to have consultation with me.  AREN 312: Energy and Power Utilization on Farms Credits: 2 Principles and stages of agriculture mechanization (reference to Ghana) Mechanized activities in crop production. Power sources on farm: human, animal, wind, water solar energy, bio-energy, Internal combustion engines (I.C.E.): petrol and diesel engines. Components of internal combustion engines, classification of I.C.E Working principles of I.C.E. Two and four stroke engines. Engine Systems: Fuel, cooling, lubrication, ignition and hydraulic system. Mechanical power transmission: Principal reasons for application of drives, classification of drives, belt, gear and chain drives. Tractor power transmission to final drives, hydraulic, traction aids. 06/30/2024 AREN 312 ENERGY AND POWER UTILIZATION ON FARMS  INTRODUCTION Agricultural mechanization is a very broad field in which numerous factors have to be considered. It is a cross-cutting term that includes several disciplines. In addition to agriculture, it includes many economic aspects. It involves many different stakeholders coming from a whole range of sections of society; the smallest farmer can have an interest and be involved but so can very large private and public sector companies and organizations.  Across this wide spectrum of interests, there is a necessity for a common understanding of the terminologies and concepts used. It is also desirable for the layperson to understand these terms and concepts. This first part serves as an introduction to this guide and sets out the general context of agricultural mechanization by defining principles and clarifying definitions. It also explains patterns of agricultural mechanization, its evolution, and the notion of sustainable development of mechanization. Finally, it clarifies the concepts of strategic planning and the way it should be SOME TERMINOLOGY USED IN AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION Agricultural mechanization According to FAO (Clarke, 1997), the term “Agricultural mechanization” generally refers to the application of tools, implements, and powered machinery as inputs to achieve agricultural production. In general three sources of power are used in agriculture; manual, animal and motorized (fossil fuel and electric). The term covers the manufacture, distribution, maintenance, repair, management, and utilization of agricultural tools, implements, and machines. It applies to agricultural land development, crop production, harvesting, and preparation for storage, on-farm processing and rural transport. Agricultural mechanization is often associated solely with tractors and sophisticated agricultural machinery – so called “tractorization”. In reality, particularly in developing countries, the term covers all levels of technology from the simplest and most basic (hand tools) to the most sophisticated and powerful. What is very important is that the technology involved meets the real needs of farmers and can be used efficiently and effectively and is financially viable. In other words, increasing levels of mechanization doesn’t necessarily mean big investments in tractors and machinery, but involves shifting to an alternative combination of the use of land, capital and labour, which results in improved farm incomes either through increased output or through reduced costs, or through a combination of both. Additional other, non-monetary benefits such as a reduction in the drudgery of farm work must also be considered.  Although agricultural mechanization is an essential input for agricultural production, it is difficult to place it alongside other inputs. It is not a single input like seed and fertilizer, but rather a series of production tools which are used in almost all phases of production. In almost any agricultural production system, the annual expenditure on mechanized inputs (tools, implements and machines), greatly exceeds the individual costs of other single inputs such as agrochemicals and seeds.  Cost components of mechanization include labour, animal costs, and running costs of tools and machines (fuel, repairs, depreciation, and interest). Farm machine and tool use, in contrast with other inputs such as seed, fertilizer, and chemicals, requires an initial capital investment. Engine driven machines such as tractors and stationary machinery require fuel, servicing, and maintenance. Animals used for draught (pulling) purposes require fodder and veterinary services. Therefore the use of mechanization can involve many different stakeholders and include technical, The different levels of agricultural mechanization Mechanization based on human power sources Manual technology (the use of hand tools and manually powered machines) relies upon human beings as the source of power (“muscle power”). There is a very wide array of tools and hand machines used in agriculture. This includes hand tools such as machetes, hoes, spades, forks, axes, knives, but also machines such as manually powered winnowers and seed drills.  These are technologically simple and can be designed and made locally in small quantities by artisans (blacksmiths) and small workshops. They may also be mass produced and sold through shops. Hand tools are generally multi-purpose tools and may be used for several operations related to crop production and agro processing. Hand tools are relatively easy to manufacture and use, as well as easy to maintain and to repair. They also offer the advantage that they are inexpensive and accepted socially. However, their use demands very high levels of human effort which limits what can be achieved in production terms.  In terms of area to be cultivated, the use of hand tools puts a limitation on the area that can be cultivated by one person. Within this overall limitation, the amount of time it takes to accomplish various farming operations will nevertheless vary widely according to considerations such as the crop, soil type, soil moisture, optimum seeding dates and desired quality of work. The amount of work a human can deliver is influenced by nutrition and health. Climatic conditions also play a significant role; in particular high ambient temperatures and humidity drastically reduce human work capacity.  Currently, hand tool technology constitutes the most widespread mechanization level within small- scale farmers in sub-Saharan Africa and some estimates even show that the use of manual tools is increasing in Africa whereas their use is decreasing in Asia. Animal power based mechanization Animals are used extensively as a source of power in agriculture. The potential draught power of animals varies greatly according to the type of animal. The main animals used for work purposes are horses, oxen, mules, donkeys and camels. Their size, nutrition, state of health and general condition at the time of use are key factors determining the amount of work they are capable of carrying out. For equines (horses, donkeys, and mules) and camels the optimum pulling force is about 12 percent to 15 percent of body weight. The working speed for most draught animals when working at optimum pull is about 3½ km/hr (Ashburner et al., 2009).  It is strongly recommended that animals which are adapted to the local conditions be used as they generally exhibit a greater resistance to local diseases. High temperature and humidity greatly reduce the work output of animals. Animals need to be trained for work purposes and it takes about a year for them to attain maximum performance. There is considerable evidence to show that by replacing and augmenting human power with animal traction, the total cultivated area can be expanded and labour productivity increased. The rate of work achieved by work animals varies considerably but can be from 5 to 20 times greater than manual labour.  Land preparation is particularly power intensive and huge increases in production can be achieved by replacing hand hoes with animal drawn ploughs. For crop production, the main implements used with animals are the plough and trailer. More recently, technological advances have led to the development and manufacture of other types of animal draught equipment such as seeders and mowers; however, primary tillage and transport still remain by far the main operations carried out by work animals. Animal power can also be used for other operations such as pumping, milling, and  The use of animals as a source of power provides economic gains not only for farmers but also for the local economy. Local businesses benefit from the use of draught animals both on the support side (retailing, manufacturing, and servicing of implements) as well as the processing, marketing and sale of surplus agricultural products. For the national economy, the requirement for foreign currency is generally small or non-existent. Animals and trailers also provide local transport facilities in rural areas. Another major economic benefit for farmers who switch to using animal draught is that it releases them and their family to carry out additional, income generating activities.  One of the main problems in using draught animals in many developing countries is the often poor condition of the animals at the end of the dry season. Yet this is the time when, in conventional farming systems, the first ploughing is undertaken, and which is the most arduous of all the tasks for the animals. Most farmers rely solely on grazing for animal feed during the off-season. This is the time when grasses and other fodder plants have dried out and are least nutritious and least plentiful.  As a consequence the animals lose condition and weight and are more susceptible to diseases which seriously reduce their work capacity. If farmers are to keep their animals in peak condition then supplementary fodder must be given before and during the work season. However, if productive land needs to be specifically set aside for this, then the food producing capacity of the farm will be reduced. Another problem with using animals for work purposes is the common perception that their use is archaic and backward. This is in contrast to tractors and other large machinery which are viewed as progressive and modern.  These are generally opinions and perceptions held by ill-informed commentators which are formed without knowing or taking into consideration all prevailing factors and conditions. Unfortunately, and to the detriment of increasing the use of animal power, tractors and other advanced machinery have been used as political tools both by donors from industrialized countries as well as politicians from recipient nations who argue that continuing to promote the use of work animals indicates a lack of development. Mechanical power based mechanization Engine powered machines represent the highest level of mechanical technology in agricultural mechanization. The sources of energy are usually fossil fuels but may also involve direct or indirect use of wind or solar resources for generating electricity for electric motors. Generally the use of advanced mechanical technology calls for higher levels of management and support services in order to optimize returns on the investment. The introduction of mechanical power into agriculture has normally brought about increases in both labour and land productivity.  Not to be underestimated is the reduction in drudgery that generally results from mechanizing operations. For example it has been estimated that a mechanized farmer can provide enough food to feed up to fifty people whereas by using draught animal power alone a farmer can only feed about six others. (Clarke, 2008). Almost all of these mechanical technologies were initially developed in Europe and North America and were used for the wider industrialization of industry. At the same time the industrial revolution needed large numbers of people to work in factories. This “pulled” labour from rural areas (although there were “push” factors as well). This in turn spurred the development of agricultural machinery that was needed to replace this labour.  It is a moot point as to whether industrialization “pulled” labour from rural areas or whether the introduction of farm mechanization “pushed” labour off the farms. In reality it was probably a combination of both. More recently in the 1960’s, 70’s and 80’s, the “labour displacing effect of mechanization” in developing countries became a contentious issue and a major point of debate.  Where the conditions for the use of tractors and large machinery are suitable, investment in agricultural mechanization has proven to be profitable. The main conditions being that the returns gained from using machinery are sufficient to cover investment and running costs as well as to generate profit. Farmers also need to be sufficiently skilled, both technically and managerially in order to make best use of the technology. This is often not the case in many developing countries, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, where the introduction and adoption of advanced technologies has been found to be problematic.  Over the last two decades there have been further rapid advances in industrialized countries in the development of agricultural machinery. This has largely been due to the use of electronic and information technologies. The use of these technologies in tractors and combines has become commonplace and has led to the development of precision farming techniques as well as the automation of a large range of other farming operations. It is not uncommon to find systems of automatic feeding of dairy cows with levels of feed based on an individual cow’s milk production. Another example is the use of sprinkler irrigation systems which automatically apply water according to levels of soil moisture but also apply controlled amounts of fertilizer and pesticides.  These new developments have widened the agricultural technology gap between industrialized and developing countries. This gap is being filled by an increase in the manufacture of less sophisticated farm tractors and machinery in many other emerging economies especially in Latin America and South and East Asia. This machinery in the main still reflects the technology of the 1970’s and 80’s and is generally well suited to the budgets of farmers. It is also well suited to the levels of knowledge and skills of operators and service providers in developing countries. Patterns of agricultural mechanization To understand patterns of agricultural mechanization and to understand how they have evolved, it is important to look at the historical perspective. This shows that agricultural mechanization cannot be isolated from other aspects of land and labour. Nor can it be separated from developments in the technical and biological sciences. The pattern and pace of mechanization in any economy are strongly influenced by land and labour resources as well as the development of demand for agricultural products and demand in other sectors.  Generally speaking, expansion in the use of mechanization in agriculture has played an important role in improving labour productivity. Similarly, progress in biological and chemical sciences has played a key role in improving land productivity. However, the distinctions between mechanical and biological technologies are not always clear cut. The use of mechanical technologies is not solely designed to improve labour productivity. Similarly, the use of biological technologies is not intended to improve only land productivity. With the development of the industrial sectors in the USA and the UK, the supply of labour in the agriculture sector shrank drastically. The further development of agricultural mechanization then played a key role in replacing this labour. In the USA between 1870 and 1920 mechanization contributed to more than a doubling of the area under cultivation. This demand for mechanization was also a major factor in the types and variety of machinery that were developed. In Japan, however, which experienced similar increases in production as the USA, the development of the agricultural sector was based more on biological and chemical technologies improving the productivity of a limited area of agricultural land. One of the main reasons for this was the increase in the price of land compared to labour, particularly between 1880 and 1900. The various types of agricultural mechanization may also be grouped according to whether they are power intensive or control intensive. At one end of this spectrum is, for example, primary tillage which is extremely power-intensive, i.e. it requires a great deal of power to pull a plough but requires relatively little control. At the other end of the spectrum is mechanical rice transplanting which requires a great deal of control but relatively little power. Generally when increasing the level of power inputs and changing from one source of power to another (human labour to draught animal power to tractors), emphasis is first placed on utilizing the extra power available for power intensive operations. Operations which directly increase production by being able to cultivate greater areas and which reduce human power inputs are the first to be mechanized. As the cost of labour rises and labour becomes scarce, the higher capital costs of more sophisticated machines which are control intensive become justifiable.  The evolution of power intensive operations differs depending on whether the source of the energy is stationary or mobile. For example, pumping and threshing operations were often mechanized first because the first motorized sources of power that became available were stationary. When tractors were developed then soil tillage became the first operation to be mechanized. It is very interesting to note that even after the introduction of tractors for tillage, other operations such as seeding often continued to be performed by draught animals or even still by hand. This is still the case in many This historical background shows that in developed countries agricultural mechanization has evolved according to the specific requirements of the farming system. Several factors such as labour availability and cost, as well as the productivity of land, determined how mechanization developed. However, in developing countries, particularly in the majority of sub-Saharan African countries, agricultural mechanization has not made much progress at all and in some instances even the achievements obtained in earlier years are being lost. The transition to sustainable development and increased production has not yet begun and many sub-Saharan African countries are still looking for mechanized methods of farming that can be adapted to their conditions. For countries to keep pace with the growth in the demand for food, substantial increases in the application of scientific and technical methods of farming will be required. Having said that, it can also be observed that a large potential for improvement in productivity exists.  SCOPE OF AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION Mechanization of agriculture has to be viewed in a very broad context. The overall scope of the term “agricultural mechanization” encompasses several components: manufacturing and/or importation, distribution, supply of spare parts and service as well as institutional support. Due attention must be paid to ensure that this system functions in an integrated manner For the mechanization sector to function well all of the individual components must be in place and all must be working efficiently. This analysis gives an overview of agricultural mechanization and shows clearly the interdependent relationships of the various components as well as the linkages between them. The level of agricultural mechanization is determined to a large extent by the profitability of the farming system which, in turn, is influenced by the domestic and international markets for farm products. Farmers respond to market demand by changing cropping patterns which may need different tools and machinery. Also, at some point, all tools, machines, and implements need to be replaced. Therefore demand for new machines and equipment is composed of two parts: replacements for existing machines and, availability of new machines and equipment for the expansion and diversification of the farming sector. Parallel to this will be an ongoing demand for spare parts and repair services. This will require a functioning input supply chain. Due attention must therefore be paid to the influence of the prevailing policy environment on the sector as well as the role of supporting institutions. Whereas agricultural policies may have specific reference to agricultural mechanization, other policies such as fiscal, trade and industry, may have an indirect influence. For example, trade policy may be to place greater reliance on increasing foreign exchange earnings, and thereby placing an emphasis on the production of export crops. Industrial policy may be to promote local manufacture which may include the production of agricultural tools and equipment. Influences of other existing policies outside of the agricultural sector should therefore also be identified and taken into account. It is unlikely that any effective changes to the mechanization sector can be effected if other, non-agricultural, policies are in place that may distort or influence the mechanization market place.