German Revolution Causes & Events PDF

**Background** The Second Reich was born in 1871. It was the name given to the union of 25 German-speaking states. The process of joining the states is known as the unification of Germany or Prussification (because of Prussia's dominance). Prussia made up to 2/3 of the Empire so the Kings of Pru...

**Background** The Second Reich was born in 1871. It was the name given to the union of 25 German-speaking states. The process of joining the states is known as the unification of Germany or Prussification (because of Prussia's dominance). Prussia made up to 2/3 of the Empire so the Kings of Prussia became the Kaisers (emperors) of Germany and Berlin, which was Prussia's capital city, became the capital of Germany. Imperial Germany looked like a democracy in some ways. It had a parliament (elected legislative body) known as the Reichstag. The Reichstag had to approve new laws and could accept or reject the budget. All men over 25 could vote. However, Germany was no democracy and the Reichstag had limited power over the government. The Kaiser had the power to appoint the chancellor, could dismiss ministers without any reference to the Reichstag and dissolve the Reichstag itself. The Kaiser had sole control over relations with other countries and undisputed command over the armed forces. One opposition politician called the Reichstag a mere 'sham parliament'. Wilhelm II, Kaiser between 1888 and 1918, believed he was in sole charge. *'There is only one master in Germany and that am I... Whoever opposes me I shall crush to pieces.'* He was described as ill-suited to government, unstable and erratic. In the years before WW1, Germany industrialised rapidly. One of the most important consequences of Germany's rapid industrialisation was the growth of the working class. Due to their terrible conditions, many turned to socialism and a large trade union movement developed. German politics came under increasing strain as a permanently upper class, conservative government struggled to work with an increasingly working class, socialist Reichstag. By 1914, the Social Democratic Party (SPD) was the largest party in the Reichstag. The SPD's opposition to capitalism and beliefs in equality threatened the wealth and status of the ruling elite. They feared revolution and also hated the SPD's for working with foreign socialists because they said this was unpatriotic 'To me every Social Democrat is an enemy of the realm and of the Fatherland', declared Wilhelm II in 1889. Historian views: A.J.P Taylor described Imperial Germany as 'a dictatorship'. James Retallack -- 'a semi-parliamentary monarchy'. What view would you agree with more? **The causes of the Revolution** How and why did Imperial Germany collapse? The Second Reich began to collapse in the final weeks of the war. A number of factors caused the 'German revolution'. Some historians believe that the **existing problems of the 2^nd^ Reich** made revolution likely before WW1. The political system of the 2^nd^ Reich had ceased to work effectively in the years before 1914. There was already growing tension between a permanently conservative government headed by an autocratic Kaiser and a growing working class with socialist inclinations. -- Add detail from background notes The **impact of WWI** placed enormous strains on Germany. When war broke out in 1914, the German people were told by their rulers that victory was certain. However, social discontent grew rapidly in the final two years of the war. Fighting the war was an enormous economic challenge. Taxation contributed only 16% of the cost. War bonds were used and money printed. This led to inflation and the mark declined in value by 75% between 1913-1918. German agriculture was not mobilised effectively, causing food shortages. The impact of the war on ordinary people was often severe. Two million soldiers were killed and 6.3 million were injured. With inflation and tight controls on wages, living standards fell by 20-20%. Food and fuel shortages exacerbated the impact of the Spanish flu pandemic in 1918 and caused misery, disease and starvation. At the start, Germany appeared politically unified behind the war effort. A political truce was announced. The situation did not last. During the war, the government became increasingly authoritarian and miliataristic. By 1916, the Supreme Commanders, Generals Hindenburg and Ludendorff were essentially in charge of the country, running what has been characterised as a 'silent dictatorship'. Military government exacerbated political and social tensions. Mounting concern about the war led, in 1917, to a Reichstag vote for the 'peace resolution;, which urged the government to try to negotiate a peace settlement, The war also saw the formation in 1915 of the communist Spartacist League that agitated for social revolution and an end to the war. Additionally, in 1917, 42 SPD deputies had broken away to form the anti-war and radical socialist USPD. Discontent with the political and social situation in Germany was revealed by the huge strikes that occurred in 1917 and 1918. In March 1918, when Russia's Bolshevik government left the war, victory for the Germans seemed likely. They didn't have to fight a war on two fronts anymore and launched the Ludendorff Offensive. In reality, the German army was exhausted and overstretched, and US troops were arriving in large numbers. The anticipated breakthrough didn't materialize and impending defeat would shatter the credibility of Imperial Germany's ruling class. In the autumn of 1918, Germany's impending defeat came as a great shock to many Germans. This contributed to the outbreak of revolution and the acceptance of the 'stab in the back' myth. Potential question: The main reason for the Revolution was \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ **The stages of the Revolution** 1. Faced with the worsening situation in the domestic front and the likelihood of defeat on the Western Front, the military leaders, Generals Ludendorff and Hindenburg recognised the seriousness of Germany's position and decided to seek peace with the Allies. In September 1918, Germany's leading generals Ludendorff and Hindenburg told a stunned Kaiser Wilhelm II that the war was lost. Between 1916-18, Hindenburg and Ludendorff had established a virtual military dictatorship so they exercised considerable influence over the Kaiser. They urged him to appoint a new liberal government made up of representatives from the biggest parties in the Reichstag. Reluctantly the Kaiser agreed. **Why did they orchestrate the revolution from above?** The architects of the revolution from above, Ludendorff and Hindenburg, were not friends of democracy. The establishment of the parliamentary democracy and appointment of socialist ministers went across their beliefs. They were prompted by the belief that the allies would be more sympathetic to a democratic government and this would secure them better peace terms than an autocratic one. They also hoped the reforms would be enough to prevent the outbreak of political revolutionary disturbances. Ludendorff was effectively the wartime dictator and he wanted to control the constitutional reforms. The more cynical ulterior motive was to distract from their own failings and shift responsibility for defeat in the war from the military leadership to the new government. The new government knew they would have to take responsibility for things that weren't their fault but believed it was their patriotic duty to take office. Sure enough, Ludendorff was able to propose the theory that the Germany people had been 'stabbed in the back' by their new government. This would play a vital role in the demise of the Weimar Republic as it was quickly capitalised on by the political right. **Significance of the revolution from above** Ludendorff resigned completely in November and went into exile in Sweden The revolution from above as it became known was on the face of things an astonishing development. The October reforms made Germany a parliamentary democracy. The government was now answerable to the Reichstag instead of the Kaiser. Kaiser Wilhelm II (who had previously declared that he was the only master of Germany) found his political powers drastically reduced. Germany was now a constitutional monarchy, like Britain's. Instead of a Kaiser with absolute rule, the monarch would now only have limited power within the lines of a constitution. A Kaiser who had been dedicated to an authoritarian style government was now merely a ceremonial head of state. Kaiser Wilhelm would no longer have the power to appoint or dismiss ministers. He also gave up his powers over the army and the navy to the Reichstag. This was a considerable change. **New personnel** The revolution from above saw a crucial change in personnel. The new Chancellor was Prince Max of Baden. He was a moderate conservative because of his democratic views. He also had a respected international reputation because of his work with the Red Cross. However, some historians have labelled him as a political lightweight. Other important figures included Philip Scheidemann of the SDP and Matthias Erzberger of the Centre Party. When Ludendorff realised the severity of the armistice conditions, he insisted that the war be carried on. When he realised that the political leaders were not prepared to accept this, he resigned from his post on October 26 1918. But Hindenburg was ordered to remain in his post. Previously Ludendorff had been acting as a military dictator so this was a significant change in the German High Command. **Peace negotiations** The revolution from above was necessary for peace negotiations to begin. General Ludendorff advised the government to seek peace terms so the new government under Prince Max opened negotiations with the Allies. At the same time, armistice negotiations with the Allies were opened. **Limitations of the revolution from above** Germany had become democratic but the monarchy remained. The Kaiser was no longer an autocrat but he still remained in a position. It is possible, that if the 2^nd^ stage of the revolution hadn't taken place that Kaiser Wilhelm could have eventually taken back more control. The constitutional monarchy could have become an absolute monarchy overtime. Some historians have claimed that the revolution from above was mere political reform, not a full revolution. For the reforms to work, they needed the support of the political parties and they did not meet their aims. The SPD held the majority in the Reichstag and their fundamental aim was a socialist republic. The USPD wanted a more revolutionary democracy over parliamentary democracy. The revolution from above also fell drastically short of delivering the Spartacist aim of a soviet republic. The revolution from above was not enough to stop the revolutionary disturbances. Germany was very quickly pushed towards full revolution because of the widespread realisation that the war was lost. The shock of defeat, after years of hardship and optimistic propaganda, hardened popular opinion. By early November, it was apparent that the creation of a constitutional monarchy would not defuse what had become a revolutionary situation. The revolution from above could be described as Act 1 of the drama or the 1^st^ stage. If it had delivered sufficient change, a second stage of revolution wouldn't have been needed. **The revolution from below** The 'revolution from above' was quickly overtaken by events. When Price Max's government tried to open ceasefire talks, with the Americans, it was told that Wilhelm II would have to step down before serious negotiations could begin. **Mutinies** Before an armistice could be gained, events began to get out of control as leaders lost control of the military. Admiral Scheer, chief of the navy, ordered the High Seas fleet to mount a last-ditch attack on the British. He saw it as a matter of honour and did not ask the new government for clearance because he did not see himself as answerable to civilian politicians. Scheer's recklessness triggered the next phase of the revolution. Realising that the war was lost and there was no point carrying on, the sailors refused to obey orders in what they saw as a suicide mission. When the fleet returned to its base at Kiel on the Baltic Sea, the mutineers seized control of the port and set up an elected council of workers and soldiers (soviet). Previously, Imperial Germany would have responded with brutal suppression but nothing was done to put down the Kiel mutiny. This showed people that Imperial Germany had lost control and was no longer to be feared. Prince Max's government quickly lost control of the political situation. The news of the Kiel mutiny (on 2 November) fanned the flames of discontent to other ports, Hamburg, Bremen and Lubeck and soon throughout Germany. **Further unrest** There were further disturbances because of the sense of national shock when the news came of Germany's military defeat (propaganda and censorship had really delayed the reality for too long) and the increasing anger and bitterness over socio-economic conditions. Sailors and workers joined together and formed soviets. By 6 November, numerous workers' and soldier's councils, similar to the soviets that had been set up by the Bolsheviks in Russia, were established in the major cities of Berlin, Cologne and Stuffgart. In Bavaria, the last member of the House of Wittelsbach, King Louis III was disposed and the socialist Kurt Eisner proclaimed Bavaria an independent democratic socialist republic on 8 November. By 9 November 1918, Germany was effectively run by SDs at local level. By the end of the first week of November it was clear that the October reforms had failed to impress the German people. The popular discontent was turning into a more fundamental revolutionary movement whose demands were for an immediate peace and the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II. **Changes in the government** At national government level, there was confusion and uncertainty: the only thing that was clear was that large numbers of Germans did not want the Kaiser to remain even in a limited role as ceremonial head of state. Prince Max would certainly have liked to preserve the monarchy, and possibly even Wilhelm II himself, but the Emperor's delusions that he could carry on without making any more political changes placed the chancellor in a difficult position. In the end, Prince Max became so worried by the revolutionary situation in Berlin that he announced that the Kaiser would renounce the throne and that a coalition left-wing government would be formed by Friedrich Ebert. The Kaiser, who was in Belgium, did not formally abdicate, he simply walked away and went into exile voluntarily in Holland. The Second Reich died suddenly and unexpectedly at 2pm on 9 November 1918 when the Kaiser bowed to pressure and abdicated. The monarchy was finished and Germany became a socialist republic. Prince Max also stood aside because it was clear that the socialists were now in charge. Friedrich Ebert (leader of the largest party -- the SDs) wanted a democratic government but to save the monarchy, if not in person of the Kaiser then through one of his younger sons or relative, but it was too late. An unelected Six-man interim government (known as the Council of People's Deputies) formed in Nov 1918 of socialists. Its task was to oversee the making of a new permanent gov. **Summary of the revolution from below -- 31 October-8 November 1918** When it became clear that Germany was about to surrender, troops were still stationed inside France and Belgium. The shock caused by approaching defeat triggered widespread discontent and mutinies: the 'revolution from below'. As realization of impending defeat spread, sailors in Kiel, a port in northern Germany, mutinied against an order to be put to sea. The mutiny soon spread to other ports and many other parts of Germany. Inspired by this mutiny, soviets sprung up across the country and there riots and disturbances across Germany. The government lost control. Fearing a violent revolution and with the SPD calling for a republic, Hindenburg advised the Kaiser to abdicate. On 9 November 1918, the Second Reich came to an end as the Kaiser agreed to abdicate. Friedrich Ebert, leader of the SPD, became the leader of Germany and formed an interim government of SPD and USPD members. The abdication of the Kaiser and the declaration of a republic -- 9 November 1918 -- fearing a violent revolution and with the SPD calling for a republic, Hindenburg advised the Kaiser to abdicate. The Kaiser fled to Holland: the Second Reich was at an end and Friedrich Ebert, leader of the SPD, was now leader of Germany. He formed a government of SPD and USPD members. **Significance of the revolution from below** It started a new radical stage of political transformation Germany became a republic The formation and coming to power of the social democratic government under Ebert ushered in a series of important political changes. It would be able to hold Germany's first fully democratic elections for the Constituent National Assembly. It would go on to have a constitution very different from the authoritarian style of government before. Despite its problems, the republic would survive until 1933. Tasks - - - - - - **[Baseline assessment]** Choose one of the following options. **January 2017 Past Paper Question** Historians differ in their judgements about the transformation of Germany from Reich to republic in 1918. **'The revolution from above (October 1918) was the most important stage in the transformation of Germany from Reich to republic in 1918.'** Assess this view using your own knowledge of the issue. OR **June 2021 Past Paper Question** Historians differ in their judgements about the transformation of Germany from Reich to republic in 1918. **'The revolution from below was the most important stage in the transformation of Germany from Reich to republic in 1918.'** Assess this view using your own knowledge of the issue. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **January 2017 Past Paper Question** | | | | Historians differ in their judgements about the transformation of | | Germany from Reich to republic in 1918. **'The revolution from above | | (October 1918) was the most important stage in the transformation of | | Germany from Reich to republic in 1918.'** Assess this view using | | your own knowledge of the issue. | +=======================================================================+ | **Relevant points to support the statement may include:** | | | | The revolution from above saw the German High Command begin the moves | | to a different form of government and Ludendorff resigned | | | | The revolution from above meant that the Chancellor and the Cabinet | | were now answerable to the Reichstag making Germany a parliamentary | | government | | | | The revolution from above saw a crucial change in personnel, e.g. a | | new Liberal Chancellor (Prince Max) was appointed | | | | The impact of the revolution from above saw the political powers of | | the Kaiser drastically reduced as he no longer appointed the | | government. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **Relevant points to counter the statement may include:** | | | | The revolution from below in November signalled a new radical stage | | of political transformation | | | | The Kaiser's departure on 9 November 1918 led to the Proclamation | | of the Republic | | | | The formation and coming to power of the social democratic | | government under Ebert ushered in a series of important political | | changes, e.g. changes to the voting system in Prussia | | | | It was the Kaiser's formal abdication (28 November 1918) that | | signalled the end of the Reich and its replacement by a republic. | | Other relevant material must be credited. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **June 2021 Past Paper Question** | | | | Historians differ in their judgements about the transformation of | | Germany from Reich to republic in 1918. **'The revolution from below | | was the most important stage in the transformation of Germany from | | Reich to republic in 1918.'** Assess this view using your own | | knowledge of the issue. | +=======================================================================+ | **Relevant points to support the statement may include:** | | | | The revolution from below in November signalled a new radical stage | | of political transformation | | | | Naval mutinies in Wilhelmshaven and other ports led to Councils of | | workers and soldiers (soviets) being established in Rostock and | | Bremen, while, in Munich, a revolt led to the proclamation of a | | republic in Bavaria | | | | The most powerful political group, the SPD, whose decision to | | withdraw from Prince Max's government signalled its end, and enabled | | it to set up their own government and, inadvertently, led to a | | republic | | | | In November 1918, a popular uprising forced the Kaiser to seek | | refuge in Holland. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **Relevant points to counter the statement may include:** | | | | The revolution from above saw the German High Command begin the | | moves to a different form of government and Ludendorff resigned | | | | The revolution from above meant that the Chancellor and the Cabinet | | were now answerable to the Reichstag, making Germany a parliamentary | | government | | | | The revolution from above saw a crucial change in personnel, e.g. a | | new Liberal Chancellor (Prince Max) was appointed | | | | The impact of the revolution from above saw the political powers of | | the Kaiser drastically reduced as he no longer appointed the | | government. Other relevant material must be credited. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **June 2021 Past Paper Question** Historians differ in their judgements about the transformation of Germany from Reich to republic in 1918. **'The revolution from below was the most important stage in the transformation of Germany from Reich to republic in 1918.'** Assess this view using your own knowledge of the issue. **Introduction** **Paragraphs on the revolution from below** **\*Limitations of the revolution from above --** **Revolution from above --** - - **The importance of the revolution from below** **Limitations of the revolution from above -- if it had been enough there wouldn't have been the revolution from below** **The revolution from above did not stop violent revolution -- mutinies and unrest** **The revolution from below led to more significant reforms -- Republic** **The revolution from below led to even more moderates/socialists in the gov** **\*Use the limitations of the rev from above in your paragraphs to explain why the rev from below was better\* Compare them**