1. CFASmsumain_FPLEreview2022_PHYCOLOGY.pdf

PHYCOLOGY “No matter how politely one says it, we owe our existence to the farts of blue-green algae.” - Diane Ackerman 1  90-item Pretest (60min) Lecture (80min) 10-min break Lecture (80min) Q&A...

PHYCOLOGY “No matter how politely one says it, we owe our existence to the farts of blue-green algae.” - Diane Ackerman 1  90-item Pretest (60min) Lecture (80min) 10-min break Lecture (80min) Q&A (10min) - The word phycology is derived from the Greek word phykos, which means “seaweed.” - The term algology, described in Webster’s dictionary as the study of the algae, has fallen out of favor because it resembles the term algogenic which means “producing pain.” - algology 2. / (ælˈɡɒlədʒɪ) / noun. the branch of medicine concerned with the study of pain. 3  OVERVIEW - The word phycology is derived from the Greek word phykos, which means “seaweed.” - The term algology, described in Webster’s dictionary as the study of the algae, has fallen out of favor because it resembles the term algogenic which means “producing pain.” - algology 2. / (ælˈɡɒlədʒɪ) / noun. the branch of medicine concerned with the study of pain. 4 A more appropriate word referring to the scientific study of algae ❑ Algology ✔Phycology ❑ Algologist ❑ Phycologist - The word phycology is derived from the Greek word phykos, which means “seaweed.” - The term algology, described in Webster’s dictionary as the study of the algae, has fallen out of favor because it resembles the term algogenic which means “producing pain.” - algology 2. / (ælˈɡɒlədʒɪ) / noun. the branch of medicine concerned with the study of pain. 5  The father of phycology is ❑ Robert E. Lee ❑ William Henry Harvey ✔Felix Eugen Fritsch none of the options thallophytes (“plants” lacking roots, stems, and leaves) 6  - W. H. Harvey (1811-1866) - is considered as one of the first algologist who proposed the first descriptive algal classification. - classified algae for the first time in 1836 into four groups based on the colour of thallus or pigmentation https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Henry_Harvey - Pioneer algologist 7  F. E. Fritsch (1879 – 1954) - also known as Father of Phycology - proposed the most acceptable and comprehensive algal classification. - He classified algae into 11 https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search /portrait/mw220887/Felix-Eugen-Fritsch - His classification is based on different characteristics as pigmentation, chemical nature of reserve food material, flagellar arrangement (kind, number and point of insertion), presence or absence of organized nucleus in cell and mode of reproduction. 8  These are thallophytes that have chlorophyll aas their primary photosynthetic pigment and lack a sterile covering of cells around the reproductive cells ✔Algae ❑ Seagrasses ❑ Mangroves ❑ All of the options are correct thallophytes (“plants” lacking roots, stems, and leaves) 9  ALGAE - thallophytes (“plants” lacking roots, stems, and leaves) thallophytes (“plants” lacking roots, stems, and leaves) 10 - chlorophyll a as their primary photosynthetic pigment 11  - lack a sterile covering of cells around the reproductive cells (contrary to other animal and plant cells) The antheridia and archegonia in Bryophytes are surrounded by a layer of sterile cells, which protects the sex organs from mechanical damage and desiccation. The sex organs in Thallophyta are unicellular, and when multicellular every cell forms a gamete. There is no jacket of sterile cells. Antheridia - the male sex organ of algae, mosses, ferns, fungi, and other nonflowering plants. Archegonia - In non-flowering plants, the archegonium produces female gametes Algae most commonly occur in water, be it fresh water, marine, or brackish. However, they can also be found in almost every other environment on earth, from the algae growing in the snow of some American mountains to algae living in lichen associations on bare rocks, to unicellular algae in desert soils, to algae living in hot springs. 12 - most commonly occur in water (fresh water, marine, or brackish) - can also be found in almost every other environment on earth or ubiquitous 13  is the primary photosynthetic pigment in algae. ❑ chlorophyll "d" ❑ chlorophyll "c" ❑ chlorophyll "b" ✔chlorophyll "a" 14 Functions/Uses: - as the primary producers https://kascomarine.com/blog/understanding-the-benefits-and-problems-with-pond- algae/algae-food-chain/ https://www.nationalgeographic.org/photo/marine-food-pyramid-1/ 15  - form the oxygen necessary for the metabolism of the consumer organisms 50-80% of the oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere comes from phytoplankton carrying out photosynthesis https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/ocean-oxygen.html 16  - human consumption Some algae (mostly red and brown), are harvested and eaten as a vegetable - humans rarely directly consume the algae 17  - mucilages are extracted (gelling and thickening agents) Mucilage - a thick, gluey substance produced by nearly all plants and some microorganisms. 18  Other Functions/Uses: - food additives - animal feeds - nutraceuticals - cosmetics - textiles - biofertilizer/biostimulants - bio-packaging - biofuel - Seaweeds have multiple other uses in food and non-food industries, such as food additives, animal feeds, pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, cosmetics, textiles, biofertilizer/biostimulants, bio-packaging, and biofuel, among others (McHugh, 2003; FAO, 2018). - However, knowledge of their contribution to these products is generally confined to seaweed- related industries and the scientific community. - textile through: 1. Algaeing converts the algae into a liquid formula that can then be used as a dye or turned into a textile when combined with cellulose (algae-based clothing) - the brown algae Iyengaria stellata, Sargassum muticum, Colpomenia sinuosa, and the red alga Laurencia obtusa (Azeem, 2019) 2. Major antibacterial agents for textiles include metals, metalbased compounds, phenolic compounds, and quaternary ammonium salts, etc., which all have toxicity and environmental issues. Hence, it has become increasingly important for antibacterial agents to meet environmental and low toxicity criteria, while retaining their functionality. The chemical compounds responsible for antibacterial activity in seaweed have been variously identified as organic and fatty acids, terpenes, carbonyls, bromophenols, halogenated aliphatic and sulfur-containing heterocyclic compounds, isoprenylated and brominated hydroquinones, as well as phlorotannins (Mtolera and Semesi, 1996). Example, for nanoparticle extraction, fresh weeds of Turbinaria conoides 19  The following are uses/functions of algae except ❑ human consumption ❑ textiles ❑ biofuel production ✔None of the options thallophytes (“plants” lacking roots, stems, and leaves) 20  Humans directly consume algae. ✔ ❑ TRUE ❑ FALSE ❑ True for microalgae only ❑ none of the options - The word phycology is derived from the Greek word phykos, which means “seaweed.” - The term algology, described in Webster’s dictionary as the study of the algae, has fallen out of favor because it resembles the term algogenic which means “producing pain.” - algology 2. / (ælˈɡɒlədʒɪ) / noun. the branch of medicine concerned with the study of pain. 21  Mucilages are extracted from some algae for gelling and thickening agents. ✔ ❑ TRUE ❑ FALSE ❑ True for microalgae only ❑ none of the options Mucilage - a thick, gluey substance produced by nearly all plants and some microorganisms. 22  HABITAT - The word phycology is derived from the Greek word phykos, which means “seaweed.” - The term algology, described in Webster’s dictionary as the study of the algae, has fallen out of favor because it resembles the term algogenic which means “producing pain.” - algology 2. / (ælˈɡɒlədʒɪ) / noun. the branch of medicine concerned with the study of pain. 23  - Algae are a group of ubiquitous organisms which are present in Microcystis diverse habitats - grow in water or in land or as an epiphyte, endophyte, and as well as https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10811-019- 01987-3 in extreme conditions Epiphyte - a plant that grows on another plant but is not parasitic. In marine systems, epiphytes are species of algae, bacteria, fungi, sponges, bryozoans, ascidians, protozoa, crustaceans, molluscs and any other sessile organism that grows on the surface of a plant, typically seagrasses or algae. Endophytes - organisms, often fungi and bacteria, that live between living plant cells. 24 Epiphytes of seagrasses include algae (micro and macro), bacteria, fungi, sponges, bryozoans, ascidians, protozoa, hydroids, crustaceans and mollusks 25  Planktonic Algae - float freely on the surface of water Microcystis Volvox a. Euplanktons b. Tychoplanktons Cladophora a. True planktons which are free floating from the beginning and never get attached to the substratum e.g. Volvox, Cosmarium, Microcystis, Chlamydomonas, Scenedesmus etc. b. Initially these algae are attached to the substratum but later they detach and become free floating e.g. Zygnema, Oedogonium, etc. 26  are organisms adapted for a planktonic habitat. They are free floating from the beginning and never get attached to the substratum. ✔ ❑ euplankton ❑ tychoplankton ❑ meroplankton ❑ holoplankton a. True planktons which are free floating from the beginning and never get attached to the substratum e.g. Volvox, Cosmarium, Microcystis, Chlamydomonas, Scenedesmus etc. b. Initially these algae are attached to the substratum but later they detach and become free floating e.g. Zygnema, Oedogonium, etc. 27  are attached to the substratum (benthic) initially but later they detach by physical processes such as turbidity currents and inadvertently become part of the free floating plankton community. ❑ euplankton ✔ ❑ tychoplankton ❑ meroplankton ❑ holoplankton a. True planktons which are free floating from the beginning and never get attached to the substratum e.g. Volvox, Cosmarium, Microcystis, Chlamydomonas, Scenedesmus etc. b. Initially these algae are attached to the substratum but later they detach and become free floating e.g. Zygnema, Oedogonium, etc. 28 Note: Do not confuse with holoplankton or permanent plankton which remain planktonic for their entire lives, and meroplankton or temporary plankton which mostly consists of larval stages of larger organism. Euplankton are organisms adapted for a planktonic habitat, whereas tychoplankton are organisms (typically benthic) that have inadvertently become part of the plankton community by physical processes such as turbidity currents (Denne,2018). 29  are permanent plankton which remain planktonic for their entire lives. ❑ euplankton ❑ tychoplankton ❑ meroplankton ✔ ❑ holoplankton 30  are temporary plankton which mostly consists of larval stages of larger organism ❑ euplankton ❑ tychoplankton ✔ ❑ meroplankton ❑ holoplankton 31  Benthic Algae - bottom dwellers a. Epizoic A B b. Epilithic c. Epipelic d. Epiphytic C D a. growing on animal body surface (Cladophora grows on snail) b. attached to stones or rocks (Ulothrix tenuissima, Tribonema minus, Batrachospermum monilisperme etc.) c. attached to sand and mud (Oedogonium sp., Clostarium sp., Cosmarium sp., etc.) d. growing on surface of plants (Vaucheria sp., Ulothrix sp.) 32  Algae which are growing on animal body surfaces. ✔ ❑ Epizoic ❑ Epilithic ❑ Epiphytic ❑ Epipelic a. growing on animal body surface (Cladophora grows on snail) 33  Algae which are attached to stones or rocks surfaces. ❑ Epizoic ✔ ❑ Epilithic ❑ Epiphytic ❑ Epipelic b. attached to stones or rocks (Ulothrix tenuissima, Tribonema minus, Batrachospermum monilisperme etc.) 34  Algae which are attached to sand and mud. ❑ Epizoic ❑ Epilithic ❑ Epiphytic ✔ ❑ Epipelic attached to sand and mud (Oedogonium sp., Clostarium sp., Cosmarium sp., etc.) 35 Algae which are growing on the surface of plants. ❑ Epizoic ❑ Epilithic ✔ ❑ Epiphytic ❑ Epipelic 36 37  Neustonic Algae - grow at air water interface Nautococcus e.g. Botrydiopsis (Xanthophyceae), Chromatophyton (Chlorophyceae), Nautococcus (Chlorooccaceae) The algae growing in seawater are commonly known as marine algae (seaweeds) and they may grow in supralittoral, sublittoral or littoral (intertidal or subtidal) zones. 38  Supralittoral Algae - grow above the water level and are found growing on the rocky shore where they are just dampened Ulothrix only by the splashes of high spring tide waves Prasiola Prasiola stipitata (a green seaweed), Ulothrix flacca etc. 39 Sublittoral or Infra Littoral Algae - - grow below the water level. https://www.sciencedirect.c m/scien /article/pii/B97801280277210000 40  Littoral (Subtidal and Intertidal)Algae - grow in the areas where there is periodic exposure of tides and is a junction between land and sea. Some of the examples of algae growing in this “subtidal zones” are Dictyota sp., Rhodymenia sp., Grateloupia sp., Gracilaria sp., Polysiphonia sp., Chondrus crispus, Laminaria sp. etc. Algae growing in Intertidal zones are Porphyra sp., Euglena sp., Laminaria sp., Gigartina sp., Fucus etc. 41 Aerophytes - growing on the surface of leaves, bark, moist walls, flower pots, rocks, fencing wires Trentepohlia 42  Cryophytic Algae - grow in permanent or semi – permanent snow, capped mountain and polar regions These algae when grow imparts color to the snow. (photo) Field images of snow and glacial algae. (a) Green snow, Chloromonas brevispina (Chlorophyta, Chlamydomonadales), Carson Mountains, NV, June 2016. (b) Golden-brown snow, Hydrurus sp. (Chrysophyceae), King George Island, Antarctica, January 2009. (c) Orange snow, Sanguina aurantia (Chlorophyta, Chlamydomonadales), Svalbard (Norway), July 2018. (d) Pink snow, Chlainomonas kolii (Chlorophyta, Chlamydomonadales), Donner Pass, CA, June 2016. (e) Red snow, Sanguina nivaloides (Chlorophyta, Chlamydomonadales), European Alps, Austria, July 2008. (f) Grey-colored glacier, Mesotaenium berggrenii (Streptophyta, Zygnematales), Gurgler Glacier, Austria, August 2017. Photos and captions from Hoham and Remias (2019). 43 Endozoic Algae - growing inside the body of vertebrates or aquatic animals 44  Symbiotic Algae - grow in association with several organisms they cause severe damage, for e.g. Cephaleuros virescence (Chlorophyceae) grows on tea, coffee and other plants (causes red rust or algal rust). 45  Halophytic Algae - grow in waters with very high salinity may be up to 70–80 ppt e.g. Dunaliella, Stephanoptera, Chlamydomonas ehrenbergii, Oscillatoria, Ulothrix. Dunaliella salina growing in salt pans of sambhar lake, Rajasthan (algae growing in extreme halophytic conditions) (Courtesy: Prof. Dinabhandhu Sahoo). (photo) Field images of snow and glacial algae. (a) Green snow, Chloromonas brevispina (Chlorophyta, Chlamydomonadales), Carson Mountains, NV, June 2016. (b) Golden-brown snow, Hydrurus sp. (Chrysophyceae), King George Island, Antarctica, January 2009. (c) Orange snow, Sanguina aurantia (Chlorophyta, Chlamydomonadales), Svalbard (Norway), July 2018. (d) Pink snow, Chlainomonas kolii (Chlorophyta, Chlamydomonadales), Donner Pass, CA, June 2016. (e) Red snow, Sanguina nivaloides (Chlorophyta, Chlamydomonadales), European Alps, Austria, July 2008. (f) Grey-colored glacier, Mesotaenium berggrenii (Streptophyta, Zygnematales), Gurgler Glacier, Austria, August 2017. Photos and captions from Hoham and Remias (2019). 46  Parasitic Algae - live as parasite and semiparasite on other algae as well as higher plants they cause severe damage, for e.g. Cephaleuros virescence (Chlorophyceae) grows on tea, coffee and other plants (causes red rust or algal rust). 47  Terestrial Algae - growing on soils, logs, rocks etc. are grouped under terrestrial algae Trentepohlia ex: Anabaena cycadaceae grows in the corolloid roots of Cycas plants; 48  Thermophytic Algae - grow in hot springs, where the temperature may go beyond 85 °C Almost all thermophytic algae are known from Cyanophyceae (ex: Cyanidium caldarium found in acidic hot springs). (photo) Cyanidium algae with chlorophyll in the 133 degree water of Norris Geyser Basin, a very active thermal area in Yellowstone National Park 49 Algae which grow above the water level and are found growing on the rocky shore where they are just dampened only by the splashes of high spring tide waves ❑ Sublittoral ❑ Littoral Ulothrix ✔ ❑ Supralittoral ❑ Subtidal Prasiola 50 Algae which grow below the water level. ✔ ❑ Sublittoral ❑ Littoral ❑ Supralittoral ❑ Subtidal https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128027 721000038 51 Algae which grow in the areas where there is periodic exposure of tides and is a junction between land and sea. ❑ Sublittoral ✔ ❑ Littoral ❑ Supralittoral ✔ Subtidal ❑ 52 These are species of algae, bacteria, fungi, sponges, bryozoans, ascidians, protozoa, crustaceans, molluscs and any other organisms that grow on the surface of seagrasses and other marine algae. ✔ ❑ Epiphytes ❑ Cryophytes ❑ Aerophytes ❑ Thermophytes 53  CYTOMORPHOLOGICAL TYPES (Structure of Thallus) Cytomorphology - The study of cellular morphology. Cytomorphology is useful in determining the external features of cells. 54 Type the WORD. Wrong spelling will be disqualified 55  Algae which have cell chains consisting of daughter cells connected to each other by their end wall. ❑ Siphonous type ❑ Siphonocladous type ✔ ✔ ❑ Filamentous type ❑ Coenobium Simple filament of Oscillatoria sp. Filaments result from cell division in the plane perpendicular to the axis of the filament and have cell chains consisting of daughter cells connected to each other by their end wall. Filaments can be simple (Fig1.3.8-10), have false branching (Fig1.3.11-12), or true branching (Fig1.3.13). 56  Simple filament of Ulothrix variabilis. Simple filament of Spirogyra sp. Filaments result from cell division in the plane perpendicular to the axis of the filament and have cell chains consisting of daughter cells connected to each other by their end wall. Filaments can be simple (Fig1.3.8-10), have false branching (Fig1.3.11-12), or true branching (Fig1.3.13). 57  False branched filament of Scytonema sp. Scale bar: 50 μm. False branched filament of Tolypothrix. Filaments result from cell division in the plane perpendicular to the axis of the filament and have cell chains consisting of daughter cells connected to each other by their end wall. Filaments can be simple (Fig1.3.8-10), have false branching (Fig1.3.11-12), or true branching (Fig1.3.13). 58  True branched filament of Cladophora glomerata. Filaments result from cell division in the plane perpendicular to the axis of the filament and have cell chains consisting of daughter cells connected to each other by their end wall. Filaments can be simple (Fig1.3.8-10), have false branching (Fig1.3.11-12), or true branching (Fig1.3.13). 59  Uniseriate filament of Pluriseraite Stigonema filament of ocellatum. Stigonema mamillosum. Filaments of Stigonema ocellatum (Cyanobacteria) consist of a single layer of cells and are called uniseriate, whereas those of Stigonema mamillosum (Cyanobacteria) made up of multiple layers are called multiseriate. 60  Algae consist of a single giant tubular cell containing thousands to millions of nuclei dividing by asynchronous mitosis, and hence they are unicellular, but multinucleate. ✔ ❑ Siphonous type ❑ Siphonocladous type ❑ Filamentous type ❑ Coenobium Siphonous thallus of Vaucheria sessilis. An example of coenocyte or apocyte, a single cell containing many nuclei. Siphonous algae consist of a single giant tubular cell containing thousands to millions of nuclei dividing by asynchronous mitosis, and hence they are unicellular, but multinucleate (or coenocytic). No cross-walls are present and the algae often take the form of branching tubes 61 Acetabularia are macronucleate (having remarkable large nucleus). During sexual reproduction, the nucleus undergoes multiple rounds of mitosis, forming many daughter nuclei all within one nuclear membrane. 62 Diverse morphologies and cellular organization in the green algae. Orders within class Ulvophyceae contain examples of multicellular organisms(Ulva), siphonocladous species with multinucleate, multicellular organization (Cladophora), giant uninucleate cells (Acetabularia), and multinucleate siphonous algae(Caulerpa). The relationships among Ulvophycean classes (not drawn to scale) are based on the molecular phylogeny of Cocquyt et al. (2010). 63  An algae which is a macronucleate or having remarkable large nucleus formed by many daughter nuclei all within one nuclear membrane ✔ ❑ Ace tabu ri la ❑ Cau lerpa ❑U lva ❑C ladophora Siphonous algae consist of a single giant tubular cell containing thousands to millions of nuclei dividing by asynchronous mitosis, and hence they are unicellular, but multinucleate (or coenocytic). No cross-walls are present and the algae often take the form of branching tubes 64 - multicellular thalli - uniseriate filamentous, branched, or unbranched organization, composed of multinucleate cells 65  COENOBIUM - Figure 1.3.5 Motile coenobium of Volvox aureus with its spherical colonies composed of up to 50,000 flagellated cells interconnected by cytoplasmic bridges. - Many algae are solitary cells, the unicell, with or without flagella, hence motile or nonmotile - Other algae exist as aggregates of few or many single cells held together loosely or in a highly organized fashion, the colony. In this type of aggregate, cell number is indefinite, growth occurs by cell division of its components, there is no division of labor, and each cell can survive on its own - When the number and arrangement of cells are determined at the time of origin of the colony and remain constant during the lifespan period of the individual colony, the colony is termed coenobium 66 - Many algae are solitary cells, the unicell, with or without flagella, hence motile or nonmotile - Other algae exist as aggregates of few or many single cells held together loosely or in a highly organized fashion, the colony. In this type of aggregate, cell number is indefinite, growth occurs by cell division of its components, there is no division of labor, and each cell can survive on its own - When the number and arrangement of cells are determined at the time of origin of the colony and remain constant during the lifespan period of the individual colony, the colony is termed coenobium 67  This type of thallus organization consists of nonmotile, quite independent cells embedded within a common mucilaginous matrix. ❑ Parenchymatous ❑ Pseudo-parenchymatous ✔ ❑ Palmelloid type ❑ Coenobium This type of thallus organization consists of nonmotile, quite independent cells embedded within a common mucilaginous matrix. The palmelloid type can be present as a temporary phase of the life cycle in some species and as permanent feature in others. Under unfavorable conditions, algae such as Chlamydomonas (Chlorophyta), Haematococcus (Chlorophyta), or Euglena (Euglenozoa) lose their flagella, round off, and undergo successive divisions, while the cells secrete mucus. Once favorable conditions are restored, the mucilage dissolves and cells revert to the flagellate conditions (Fig.1.3.23). 68 Development of palmelloid cysts of Dunaliella salina in laboratory cultures initiated from waters with low (~6%) salinity from solar salterns: a, Palmelloid cysts in 5-day-old laboratory cultures (12.5% NaCl). b, c, Mature cysts in 8-day-old culture magnified 400 and 1000 respectively. d, Release of cells from the palmelloid. e, f, Green and orange cells of D. salina in 14 and 35-day-old cultures respectively, developed by sub-culture of cells released from the palmelloid. Bar represents 10 m(Keerthi, et al., 2016) 69  is an example of an alga which undergoes a temporary palmelloid stage. ❑ Pe ia d trum s ✔ ❑ Eu lena g ❑U lva ❑V lvox o This type of thallus organization consists of nonmotile, quite independent cells embedded within a common mucilaginous matrix. The palmelloid type can be present as a temporary phase of the life cycle in some species and as permanent feature in others. Under unfavorable conditions, algae such as Chlamydomonas (Chlorophyta), Haematococcus (Chlorophyta), or Euglena (Euglenozoa) lose their flagella, round off, and undergo successive divisions, while the cells secrete mucus. Once favorable conditions are restored, the mucilage dissolves and cells revert to the flagellate conditions (Fig.1.3.23). 70  PARENCHYMATOUS AND PSEUDO-PARENCHYMATOUS TYPE cells of the primary filament divide in all directions and any essential filamentous structure is lost In the case of parenchymatous algae, cells of the primary filament divide in all directions and any essential filamentous structure is lost. (ex. Ulva, Laminaria, Fucus) 71  PARENCHYMATOUS AND PSEUDO-PARENCHYMATOUS TYPE made up of a loose or close aggregation of numerous, intertwined, branched filaments that collectively form the thallus, held together by mucilage Pseudo-parenchymatous algae are made up of a loose or close aggregation of numerous, intertwined, branched filaments that collectively form the thallus, held together by mucilage, especially in red algae. Thallus construction is entirely based on a filamentous construction. Figure 1.3.22 Pseudo-parenchymatous thallus of Palmaria palmata 72 STRUCTURE OF THE ALGAL CELL 73 CELL WALLS AND MUCILAGES two components: (1) fibrillar component, which forms the skeleton of the wall (ex. cellulose) (2) amorphous component, which forms a matrix within which the fibrillar component is embedded (alginic acid and fucoidan in Phaeophyceae; galactans which includes agar and carrageenan in Rhodophyta) Ccll wall stí"ct"íc i⭲ tkc bíow⭲ algac. Artcí Sckicwcí a⭲d VolcskQ 74 Alginic acid and fucoidin are commercially exploited polysaccharides found in the cell walls of which algal group? ❑ Chlorophyceae ✔ ❑ Phaeophyceae ❑ Rhodophyceae ❑ Cyanophyceae 75 Agar and carrageenan are galactans found in the cell walls of which algal group? ❑ Chlorophyceae ❑ Phaeophyceae ✔ ❑ Rhodophyceae ❑ Cyanophyceae 76  CHLOROPLAST - plastid capable of photosynthesis Thylakoids - contain the chlorophylls and are the sites of the photochemical reactions Stroma - carbon dioxide fixation occurs Pyrenoid - associated with storage product Eyespot or Stigma - involved in response to light Semidiagrammatic drawing of a cell in a Volvox vegetative colony. The colony wall (CW) is distinct from the cell wall (W). (C) Chloroplast; (E) eyespot; (F) flagellum; (G) Golgi; (M) mitochondrion; (N) nucleus; (P) pyrenoid; (S) starch. (Adapted from Pickett-Heaps, 1970.) Chloroplasts contain small (30–100 nm), spherical lipid droplets between the thylakoids (Fig. 1.4.6c & d). These lipid droplets serve as a pool of lipid reserve within the chloroplast. Many motile algae have groups of tightly packed carotenoid lipid-globules that constitute an orange-red eyespot or stigma (Fig.1.4.7) that is involved in response to light. 77  Motile algae exhibit three types of responses to light: 1. Phototaxis - orientation of cell movement is effected by the direction and intensity of light 2. Photophobia (photoshock) - change in direction of movement of the cell caused by a rapid change in light intensity 3. Gliding (quiesence) - flagella stop beating and adhere to a surface or an air/water interface 1. Phototaxis. In phototaxis, the orientation of cell movement is effected by the direction and intensity of light. The cells move toward the light in positive phototaxis and away from the light in negative phototaxis. 2. Photophobia (photoshock). Photophobia is a change in direction of movement of the cell caused by a rapid change in light intensity, irrespective of the direction of the light. Swimming cells stop and change the beat pattern from the normal asymmetric flagellar stroke to a symmetrical stroke that propels the cell backward (Fig. 1.4.8). At the end of the photophobic response, the cells tumble and resume swimming in a new direction. 3. Gliding (quiesence). In gliding, the flagella stop beating and adhere to a surface or an air/water interface (Mitchell, 2000). The cells can glide over the surface with one flagellum actively leading and the other passively trailing (Fig. 1.4.8). Cells may switch direction by changing which flagellum is active. Gliding motility may be a common phenomenon among organisms that live in the thin film of water on soil particles. Figure 1.4.8Three types of flagellar orientation in Chlamydomonas. Inphototaxis, the cells swim forward and rotate. Phototaxis requires that cells swim forward in a spiral path that causes rotation of the symmetrically placed eyespot. In photoshock, the cell has a transient avoidance response that causes the cell to swim backwards. In gliding, the leading flagellum and passive flagellum are 180° apart. 78 A type of algal light response where the orientation of cell movement is effected by the direction and intensity of light. ✔ ❑ Phototaxis ❑ Photophobia 1. In phototaxis, the orientation of cell ❑ Gliding movement is effected by the direction and intensity of light. The cells move ❑ Stigma toward the light in positive phototaxis and away from the light in negative phototaxis. 79 A type of algal light response where there is a change in the direction of cell movement caused by a rapid change in light intensity, irrespective of the direction of the light. 2. Photophobia is a change in direction of ❑ Phototaxis movement of the cell caused by a rapid change in light intensity, irrespective of the direction of the ✔ ❑ Photophobia light. Swimming cells stop and change the beat pattern from the normal asymmetric flagellar stroke ❑ Gliding to a symmetrical stroke that propels the cell backward. At the end of the photophobic response, ❑ Stigma the cells tumble and resume swimming in a new direction. 80 Many motile algae have groups of tightly packed carotenoid lipid-globules called that is involved in algal response to light. ❑ Pyrenoid ❑ Stroma ❑ Thyllakoids ✔ ❑ Stigma 81  Chlorophyll Chlorophyll a - the primary photosynthetic pigment in all photosynthetic algae Chlorophyll b - found in the Euglenophyta and Chlorophyta; light-harvesting pigment transferring absorbed light energy to chlorophyll a. Chlorophyll c - found in the Dinophyta, Cryptophyta, and most of the Heterokontophyta. Chlorophyll c has two spectrally different components (c 1, c 2) Chlorophyll d - occurs in some cyanobacteria Chlorophyll a is the primary photosynthetic pigment in all photosynthetic algae. Chlorophyll b is found in the Euglenophyta and Chlorophyta. Chlorophyll b functions photosynthetically as a light-harvesting pigment transferring absorbed light energy to chlorophyll a. Chlorophyll c is found in the Dinophyta, Cryptophyta, and most of the Heterokontophyta. Chlorophyll c has two spectrally different components: chlorophyll c1 and c2. Chlorophyll c2 is always present, but chlorophyll c1 is absent in the Dinophyta and Cryptophyta. Chlorophyll c probably functions as an accessory pigment to photosystem II. Chlorophyll d occurs in some cyanobacteria (Murakami et al., 2004). 82 A type of chlorophyll which occurs in some cyanobacteria ❑ Chlorophyll a ❑ Chlorophyll b ❑ Chlorophyll c ✔ ❑ Chlorophyll d 83 ALGAL NUTRITION 84  are heterotrophic algae which engulf food particles whole into food vesicles for digestion. ✔ ❑ phagocytotic ❑ osmotrophic ❑ saprophytic ❑ parasitic 85  are heterotrophic algae which absorb nutrients in a soluble form through the plasma membrane. ❑ phagocytotic ✔ ❑ osmotrophic ❑ saprophytic ❑ parasitic 86  are primarily heterotrophic, but are capable of sustaining themselves by phototrophy when prey concentrations limit heterotrophic growth ✔ ❑ Obligate heterotrophic algae ❑ Obligate phototrophic algae ❑ Facultative mixotrophic algae ❑ Obligate mixotrophic algae On the basis of their nutritional strategies, we can classify algae into four groups: 1. Obligate heterotrophic algae: they are primarily heterotrophic, but are capable of sustaining themselves by phototrophy when prey concentrations limit heterotrophic growth (e.g., Gymnodium gracilentum, Myzozoa); 2. Obligate phototrophic algae: their primary mode of nutrition is phototrophy, but they can supplement growth by phagotrophy and/or osmotrophy when light is limiting (e.g., Dinobryon divergens, Ochrophyta); 3. Facultative mixotrophic algae: they can grow equally well as photoautotrophs and as heterotrophs (e.g., Fragilidium subglobosum, Myzozoa); 4. Obligate mixotrophic algae: their primary mode of nutrition is phototrophy, but phagotrophy and/or osmotrophy provide substances essential for growth (in this group, we can include photoautoxotrophic algae) (e.g., Euglena gracilis, Euglenozoa). 87  are algae whose primary mode of nutrition is phototrophy, but they can supplement growth by phagotrophy and/or osmotrophy when light is limiting. ❑ Obligate heterotrophic algae ✔ ❑ Obligate phototrophic algae ❑ Facultative mixotrophic algae ❑ Obligate mixotrophic algae On the basis of their nutritional strategies, we can classify algae into four groups: 1. Obligate heterotrophic algae: they are primarily heterotrophic, but are capable of sustaining themselves by phototrophy when prey concentrations limit heterotrophic growth (e.g., Gymnodium gracilentum, Myzozoa); 2. Obligate phototrophic algae: their primary mode of nutrition is phototrophy, but they can supplement growth by phagotrophy and/or osmotrophy when light is limiting (e.g., Dinobryon divergens, Ochrophyta); 3. Facultative mixotrophic algae: they can grow equally well as photoautotrophs and as heterotrophs (e.g., Fragilidium subglobosum, Myzozoa); 4. Obligate mixotrophic algae: their primary mode of nutrition is phototrophy, but phagotrophy and/or osmotrophy provide substances essential for growth (in this group, we can include photoautoxotrophic algae) (e.g., Euglena gracilis, Euglenozoa). 88  are algae which can grow equally well as photoautotrophs and as heterotrophs. ❑ Obligate heterotrophic algae ❑ Obligate phototrophic algae ✔ ❑ Facultative mixotrophic algae ❑ Obligate mixotrophic algae On the basis of their nutritional strategies, we can classify algae into four groups: 1. Obligate heterotrophic algae: they are primarily heterotrophic, but are capable of sustaining themselves by phototrophy when prey concentrations limit heterotrophic growth (e.g., Gymnodium gracilentum, Myzozoa); 2. Obligate phototrophic algae: their primary mode of nutrition is phototrophy, but they can supplement growth by phagotrophy and/or osmotrophy when light is limiting (e.g., Dinobryon divergens, Ochrophyta); 3. Facultative mixotrophic algae: they can grow equally well as photoautotrophs and as heterotrophs (e.g., Fragilidium subglobosum, Myzozoa); 4. Obligate mixotrophic algae: their primary mode of nutrition is phototrophy, but phagotrophy and/or osmotrophy provide substances essential for growth (in this group, we can include photoautoxotrophic algae) (e.g., Euglena gracilis, Euglenozoa). 89 ALGAL REPRODUCTION 90 The following are methods of reproduction observed in algae except ❑ vegetative ❑ asexual ❑ sexual ✔ ❑ none of the choices 91 REPRODUCTION IN ALGAE Vegetative - division of a single cell or fragmentation of a colony Asexual - production of motile spore Sexual - union of gametes 92  VEGETATIVE AND ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION 1. Binary Fission or Cellular Bisection - simplest; parent organism divides into two equal parts - Growth follows a typical curve consisting of a lag phase, an exponential or log phase, and a stationary or plateau phase, (and death phase) 1. Binary Fission or Cellular Bisection - It is the simplest form of reproduction; the parent organism divides into two equal parts, each having the same hereditary information as the parents - The growth of the population follows a typical curve consisting of a lag phase, an exponential or log phase, and a stationary or plateau phase, where increase in density has leveled off (see Figure 1.7.2). In multicellular algae or in algal colonies, this process eventually leads to growth of the individual. - Figure 1.7.2(a) Growth curve of an algal population under batch culture conditions. (b) Corresponding variations of the growth rate. 93 2. Zoospore, Aplanospore, and Autospore Zoospores - flagellate motile spores that may be produced within a parental vegetative cell Aplanospores - aflagellate (lacking flagellum) spores that begin their development within the parent cell wall before being released; can develop into zoospores Zoospores of Tetraselmis sp. within the parental cell wall. Scale bar: 5 μm. 94 Autospores - aflagellate daughter cells that will be released from the ruptured wall of the original parent cell; lack the capacity to develop in zoospores. Spores may be produced within and by Nannochloropsis ordinary vegetative cells or within specialized cells or structures called sporangia. Chlorella Examples of autospore-forming genera are Nannochloropsis (Ochrophyta) and Chlorella (Chlorophyta). 95 3. Autocolony Formation Cell division no longer produces unicellular individuals but multicellular groups, a sort of embryonic colony that differs from the parent in cell size but not in cell number (ex. Vo lvox, Ped ias trum) In this reproductive mode, when the coenobium/colony enters the reproductive phase, each cell within the colony can produce a new colony similar to the one to which it belongs. In Volvox, division is restricted to a series of cells which produce a hollow sphere within the parent colony, and with each mitosis each cell becomes smaller. The new colony everts, its cell forms flagella at their apical poles, and it is released by rupture of the parent sphere. 96 In Pediastrum, the protoplast of some cells of the colony undergoes divisions to form biflagellate zoospores. These are not liberated but aggregate to form a new colony within the parent cell wall. 97 Figure 1.7.6A diagram which illustrates the process of asexual reproduction in Pediastrum duplex;autocolony formation. From left to right, a parent colony produces a number of biflagellate zoospores kept within a vesicle. An emergent vesicle which leaves a break in the mother cell. An aggregation and arrangement of round shaped motile spores take place and spherical spores transform into "butterfly-shaped cells". These cells organise and finalise into a new complete daughter colony drifting and floating along water current. 98 4. Fragmentation - A more or less random process whereby noncoenobic colonies or filaments break into two to several fragments having the capacity of developing into new individuals. Spirogyra 99 5. Resting Stages Hypnospores and hypnozygotes - have thickened walls, are produced e xn o v oby protoplasts which previously separated from the walls of the parental cells. Dinoflagellate hypnozygote. Scale bar: 10 μm. Under unfavorable conditions, particularly of desiccation, many algal groups produce thick- walled resting cells, such as hypnospores, hypnozygotes, statospores, and akinetes. Hypnospores are present in Ulotrix spp. (Chlorophyta) and Chlorococcum spp. (Chlorophyta), whereas hypnozygotes are present in Spyrogyra spp. (Chlorophyta) and Dinophyceae (Myzozoa) Hypnospores and hypnozygotes enable these green algae to survive temporary drying out of small water bodies and also allow aerial transport from one water body to another, for instance, via birds. It is likely that dinoflagellate cysts have a similar function. ex novo – (Latin) from scratch; from the beginning 100 Statospores - endogenous cysts formed within the vegetative cell by member of Chrysophyceae such as Och rom on a ss pp Akinetes - enlarged vegetative cells that develop a thickened wall in response to limiting environmental nutrients or limiting light. Akinetes (arrows) of Anabaena sp. Scale bar: 10 μm. Statospores. The cyst walls consist predominantly of silica and so are often preserved as fossils. These statospores are spherical or ellipsoidal, often ornamented with spines or other projections. The wall is pierced by a pore, sealed by an unsilicified bung, and a nucleus, chloroplasts and abundant reserve material lie within the cyst. After a period of dormancy, the cyst germinates and liberates its content in the form of one to several flagellated cells. Akinetes is of widespread occurrence in the blue-green and green algae. They are essentially enlarged vegetative cells that develop a thickened wall in response to limiting environmental nutrients or limiting light. Figure 1.7.8 shows the akinetes of Anabaena cylindrica (Cyanophyta). They are extremely resistant to drying and freezing, as well as function as a long-term anaerobic storage of the genetic material of the species. Akinetes can remain in sediments for many years, enduring very harsh conditions, and remain viable to assure the continuance of the species. When suitable conditions for vegetative growth are restored, the akinete germinates into new vegetative cells. 101 A type of algal reproduction where cell division no longer produces unicellular individuals but multicellular groups, a sort of embryonic colony that differs from the parent in cell size but not in cell number. ✔ ❑ Autocolony formation ❑ Fragmentation ❑ Autospores ❑ All of the options 102 A type of algal reproduction characterized by a more or less random process whereby noncoenobic colonies or filaments break into two to several fragments having the capacity of developing into new individuals. ❑ Autocolony formation ✔ ❑ Fragmentation ❑ Autospores ❑ All of the options 103 The following are examples of resting algal cells which are produced during unfavorable conditions, except ❑ hypnospores ❑ statospores ❑ akinetes ✔ ❑ autospores 104 Mode of reproduction in algae which involves plasmogamy (union of cells), karyogamy (union of nuclei), chromosome/gene association, and meiosis, resulting in genetic recombination. ❑ vegetative and asexual ✔ ❑ sexual ❑ zoospores ❑ All of the options 105  SEXUAL REPRODUCTION Different combinations of gamete types are possible: Isogamy - gametes are both motile and indistinguishable Heterogamy - When the two gametes differ in size Anysogamy - both gametes are motile, but one is small (sperm) and one is large (egg) Oogamy – when only one gamete is motile (sperm), which fuses with one nonmotile and very large (egg) Gametes may be morphologically identical with vegetative cells or markedly differ from them, depending on the algal group. The main difference is obviously the DNA content which is haploid instead of diploid. Different combinations of gamete types are possible. Oogamy same with human 106 A type of sexual reproduction in algae where the gametes involved are both motile and indistinguishable. ✔ ❑ isogamy ❑ heterogamy ❑ anysogamy ❑ oogamy 107 A type of heterogamy in algae where both gametes are motile, but one is small (sperm) and one is large (egg). ❑ isogamy ❑ heterogamy ✔ ❑ anysogamy ❑ oogamy 108  LIFE CYCLES 1. Haplontic or Zygotic Life Cycle - characterized by a single predominant haploid vegetative phase, with the meiosis taking place upon germination of the zygote (ex. Ch lamydomonas) Algae exhibit three different life cycles with variation inside the different groups. The main difference is the point where meiosis occurs and the type of cells it produces, and whether or not there is more than one free-living stage present in the life cycle. Figure 1.7.9 Life cycle of Chlamydomonas sp.: 1, mature cell; 2, cell-producing zoospores; 2′, cell- producing gametes (strain + and strain −); 3, zoospores; 3′, gametes; 4′, fertilization; 5′, zygote; 6′, release of daughter cells. R!: meiosis; a.r.: asexual reproduction; s.r.: sexual reproduction. Haploid - refers to a cell or an organism that has only a single set of chromosomes. 109  LIFE CYCLES 2. Diplontic or Gametic Life Cycle - has a single predominant vegetative diploid phase, and the meiosis gives rise to haploid gametes (ex. D ia toms, Fucus) Figure 1.7.10 Life cycle of a diatom: 1, vegetative cell; 2–3, vegetative cell division; 4, minimum cell size; 5, gametogenesis; 6–7, fertilization; 8, auxospores; 9, initial cells. R!: meiosis. Gametogenesis - the process in which cells undergo meiosis to form gametes. Auxospores - are swelled cells where a new cell wall of maximum dimensions is produced. Diplontic life cycle (same with human) 110  sporophyte LIFE CYCLES 3. Diplohaplontic or Sporic Life Cycles - present an alternation of generation between two gametophyte gametophyte different phases consisting of a haploid gametophyte and a diploid sporophyte (ex. U lv a, Lam ina ri, Po rphy ra) sporophyte - The gametophyte produces gametes by mitosis, and the sporophyte produces spores through meiosis. - Alternation of generation in the algae can be isomorphic, in which the two phases are morphologically identical as in Ulva (Chlorophyta) or heteromorphic, with predominance of the sporophyte as in Laminaria (Ochrophyta), or with predominance of the gametophyte as in Porphyra (Rhodophyta) - Figure 1.7.12 Life cycle of Ulva sp.: 1, sporophyte; 2, male zoospore; 2′, female zoospore; 3, young male gametophyte; 3′, young female gametophyte; 4, male gametophyte; 4′, female gametophyte; 5, male gamete; 5′, female gamete; 6–8, syngamy; 9, young sporophyte. R!: meiosis. - Sporophyte and gametophyte in Ulva are morphologically identical/ isomorphic alternation of generation 111  Isomorphic alternation of generation - two sporophyte phases are morphologically identical (Ulva) Heteromorphic alternation of generation - predominance of the sporophyte (Laminaria) , gametophyte as in (Porphyra) gametophyte gametophyte Figure 1.7.14 Life cycle of Porphyra sp.: 1, male gametophyte; 1′, female gametophyte; 2, sperm; 2′, egg; 3, fertilization and zygote; 4, spores; 5, sporophyte; 6, male spore; 6′, female spores; 7, 112 gametophyte gametophyte Heteromorphic alternation of generation - predominance of the sporophyte (Laminaria) , gametophyte as in (Porphyra) sporophyte Figure 1.7.13 Life cycle of Laminaria sp.: 1, sporophyte; 2, male zoospore; 2′, female zoospore; 3, male gametophyte; 3′, female gametophyte; 4, sperm; 4′, egg and fertilization; 5, zygote; 6, young sporophyte. R!: meiosis. 113 Type the WORD. Wrong spelling will be disqualified 114 This type of life cycle in algae is characterized by a single predominant haploid vegetative phase, with the meiosis taking place upon germination of the zygote. ✔ ❑ Haplontic or Zygotic Life Cycle ❑ Diplontic or Gametic Life Cycle ❑ Diplohaplontic or Sporic Life Cycles ✔ ❑ Isomorphic Life Cycle 115 This type of life cycle in algae has a single predominant vegetative diploid phase, and the meiosis gives rise to haploid gametes. ❑ Haplontic or Zygotic Life Cycle ✔ ❑ Diplontic or Gametic Life Cycle ❑ Diplohaplontic or Sporic Life Cycles ❑ Isomorphic Life Cycle 116 This type of life cycle in algae which present an alternation of generation between two different phases consisting of a haploid gametophyte and a diploid sporophyte. ❑ Haplontic or Zygotic Life Cycle ❑ Diplontic or Gametic Life Cycle ✔ ❑ Diplohaplontic or Sporic Life Cycles ❑ Isomorphic Life Cycle 117 ALGAL CLASSIFICATION 118  BASIS FOR ALGAL CLASSIFICATION Photosynthetic apparatus and pigments Nature of reserve food Nature of cell wall components Type, number and attachment of flagella Cell structure Endosymbiosis is a primary force in eukaryotic cell evolution Endosymbiosis - symbiosis in which one of the symbiotic organisms lives inside the other. It is a primary force in eukaryotic cell evolution. Recent studies of algal evolution have shown that endosymbiosis has occurred several times and has yielded a variety of eukaryotic cells. 119 TYPES ALGAL CLASSIFICATION Classification Proposed by W. H. Harvey (1836) F.E. Fritsch’s Classification (1935) G.M. Smith’s Classification (1950) Round’s Classification (1973) Bold and Wynne’s Classification (1985) Robert Edward Lee’s Classification (1989) 120 EVOLUTION OF ALGAL CLASSIFICATION Classification Proposed by W. H. Harvey (1836) - classified algae for the first time in 1836 into four groups based on the colour of thallus or pigmentation 121  Classification Proposed by F. E. Fritsch (1935) - most acceptable and comprehensive algal classification. - based on different characteristics as pigmentation, chemical nature of reserve food material, flagellar arrangement (kind, number and point of insertion), presence or absence of organized nucleus in cell and mode of reproduction. - classified algae into 11 classes 122 123 124 Diatoms belong to this class ❑ Dinophyceae ✔ ❑ Bacillariophyceae ❑ Ochrophyta ❑ Dinophyta 125  Classification Proposed by R. E. Lee ( 2008 ) - classified algae in two groups Prokaryota and Eukaryota which were further divided into divisions. - Prokaryota has just one division Cyanophyta, whereas Eukaryota were further divided on the basis of nature of chloroplast membrane. 126 127 The phylum for prokaryotic algae ❑ Cyanophyceae ✔ ❑ Cyanophyta ❑ Chlorophyceae ❑ Chlorophyta 128 129 130 Diatoms belong to this Phylum ❑ Dinophyceae ❑ Bacillariophyceae ✔ ❑ Ochrophyta ❑ Dinophyta 131 Which of the following phyla has paramylon as its storage product? ✔ ❑ Euglenophyta ❑ Cyanophyta ❑ Dinophyta ❑ Chlorophyta 132  Division-level classification of algae is tenuous for algae. A simpler and more common classification of algae on the basis of photosynthetic pigments can be used, as follows: 1. Chlorophyceae (green algae) 2. Phaeophyceae (brown algae) 3. Rhodophyceae (red algae) 133  AlgaeBase (https://www.algaebase.org/) Estimates of the number of living algae varies from 30,000 to more than 1 million species, but most of the reliable estimates refer to the numbers given in AlgaeBase, which currently documents 32,260 species of organisms generally regarded as algae of an estimated 43,918 described species of algae, corresponding to about 73% (Barsanti and Gualtieri, 2014). 134 SEAWEEDS AND MICROALGAE: AN OVERVIEW FOR UNLOCKING THEIR POTENTIAL IN GLOBAL AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT 135 In 2019, algae, including seaweeds and microalgae, contribute nearly percent of world aquaculture production (FAO,2021). ✔ ❑ 30 ❑ 20 ❑ 10 ❑ 40 136 The following are examples of macroalgae, except ✔ ❑ Nannoch lorop i s ❑ Turbe ri la ❑ Grailaia rc ❑ Lam ina ri Nannochloropsis 137 The following are examples of microalgae, except ❑C lorela h ❑V lvox o ✔ ❑ Cau lerpa ❑ Sp iru lna 138 Contribution of commercial microalgae cultivation in the global algae cultivation in 2019 ✔ ❑ 0.2 percent ❑ 2 percent ❑ 22 percent ❑.02 percent 139 Top seaweed producing country based on Global Seaweed Production of 2019 (FAO 2021) ✔ ❑ China ❑ Indonesia ❑ Republic of Korea ❑ Philippines 140 Philippines ranked in the top seaweed producing countries based on Global Seaweed Production of 2019 (FAO 2021) ❑1 ❑2 ❑3 ✔ ❑4 141 The following are the taxonomic groups for seaweeds, except ❑ Phaeophyceae ❑ Rhodophyta ❑ Chlorophyta ✔ ❑ Cyanobacteria 142 Brown seaweed cultivation has concentrated on these cold-water genera (FAO 2021): ✔ ❑Lam in ri and Unda a ri ❑L am in ri and S a a rg a s um ❑L am in ri and Macrocys a ti ❑S a rg a s umand Macrocys ti 143 Uses of brown seaweeds includes the following except for ❑ as human foods ❑ alginate production ❑ animal feeds ✔ ❑ none of the options 144 Red seaweed cultivation is concentrated on these genera ❑K a pp ap h y c us/E u c he u m a ❑ Grac r ila ❑P o rphy ra ✔ ❑ all of the options 145 Garcilaria are mostly used for ✔ ❑ agar production ❑ carrageenan production ❑ human food ❑ all of the options 146  World green seaweed cultivation in 2019 primarily comprised five Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Information System (ASFIS) species items which do not include ❑ Ca lerpas u pp. ❑ Cou d imfrag ile ❑ En te romorphap life ro a ✔ ❑ Lam ina rijapon ica ASFIS – Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Information System – species items in FAO statistics could refer to either individual species, hybrids or groups of related species, such as families (when identification to species is impossible). www.fao.org/fishery/collection/asfis/en 147 The following are microalgae species closely related to aquaculture, except ❑C lore h laspp. ❑ Nann och lorop is spp. ❑ diatoms (Bacillariophyceae) ✔ ❑ none of the options 148  Disclaimer: This handout contains copyrighted materials, the use of which may have no explicit or expressed permission from the copyright owner. This material is made available solely for educational and informational purposes and may not be reproduced or circulated without prior consent. Pediastrum? Closterium is a genus of unicellular charophyte green algae 149