Chapter 8 - Memory - PSY 1000 (Dr. Escobar) PDF

PSY 1000 (Dr. Escobar) Chapter 8 Chapter 8 Memory 8.1 How memory functions...

PSY 1000 (Dr. Escobar) Chapter 8 Chapter 8 Memory 8.1 How memory functions 8.2 Parts of the brain involved with memory 8.3 Problems with memory 8.4 Ways to enhance memory 8.1 How memory functions What is memory? Encoding Process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information for later Encoding is the process by which information from the environment is use labeled in a way that the brain can organize it and connect it with similar concepts − Analogy: Computer coding Two types of processing INFORMATION ENCODING STORAGE RETRIEVAL − Automatic processing: Incidental details, requires no awareness − Effortful coding: Content, requires awareness Encoding is most effective when the information is meaningful Types of encoding Semantic encoding is the process by which we encode words and their meaning Visual encoding is the encoding of images Acoustic encoding is the encoding of sounds It is easier to remember items we can encode in multiple ways 1 PSY 1000 (Dr. Escobar) Chapter 8 Factors that improve encoding Storage Semantic encoding: Deepest level of encoding, results in the best Information that has been encoded is moved into a memory store subsequent retrieval of the memory Storage is the process of creating a permanent record of information Self-reference effect: We remember best information that relates to ourselves than information that has no personal relevance Atkinson & Shiffrin’s (1968) memory model Sensory memory A brief representation of what is being sensed Includes information from all senses (unlimited capacity?) − Cocktail-party phenomenon Information is lost within approx. one second. Allows for meaningful perceptions Information that captures one’s attention is transferred to short-term memory − Information that does not capture attention is lost − Dichotic listening effect Short-term memory (STM) Short-term memory (STM) Store for the items actively in use How limited is the capacity of STM? Part of working memory George Miller determined in the 1950s that the STM store has a Very limited capacity capacity of about 7 (±2) items (memory span). Information that is not rehearsed is lost More recent research suggest that this number is closer to 4 (±1) items. Elaborative encoding can help move information from STM to long- term memory The capacity appears to be lower for letters than numbers and for visual than acoustic information 2 PSY 1000 (Dr. Escobar) Chapter 8 Short-term memory (STM) Short-term memory (STM) Chunking is a process by which we cluster the items to be Memory traces become less activated over time; traces that do not remembered into fewer (but larger) units move to long-term memory and become less active are lost The sequence of items: 4 – 8 – 6 – 7 – 2 – 9 – 1 – 0 – 3 STM traces appear to last for about 18 s Can be reorganized as: 486 – 729 – 103 Mnemonic devices like chunking can help use STM more effectively, but do not increase its capacity Long-term memory (LTM) Animal is an is an LTM is a permanent store for memories is an Unlimited capacity, unlimited duration Fish Person Information is organized in semantic networks (associations between related concepts) Cat is a likes − Activation can spread to other, related concepts is a is a likes Garfield likes Jon likes likes Food is a Lasagna LTM components Explicit memory Explicit memories are those that we make a conscious effort to recall − E.g., what is the capital of Cuba? We may need prompts to retrieve the information − It starts with the letter H − Next letter is A − Next letter is V − Camila Cabello has a song named after it 3 PSY 1000 (Dr. Escobar) Chapter 8 Explicit memory Implicit memory Explicit memories are either episodic or semantic Implicit memories are those that we recall without awareness Episodic memories are those that relate to personal experiences (episodes of your life) − E.g., what did you have for breakfast this morning? − Typically told as stories − Include what, where, and when information Semantic memories are knowledge-related − E.g., who was the second president of the United States? − Typically told as facts Implicit memory Implicit memory Implicit memories are those that we recall without awareness Procedural memories are those that relate to skilled actions Three types: Procedural memories, priming, and emotional − E.g., riding a bike; driving conditioning Priming is an effect in which exposure to a stimulus affects responses to a later stimulus − E.g., talking about “Cuba” and thinking of the name of a country that starts with “C” Typically told as facts Emotional conditioning − E.g., feeling happy when smelling Thanksgiving food Involves conscious effort STM and LTM can be dissociated Episodic: Personal experiences Explicit or Declarative STM and LTM are closely related, but they can be dissociated Semantic: Knowledge Some injuries affect STM without impairing LTM about the world On your own: Watch the videos about Scott Bolzan and Clive Wearing Memory (Moodle) Procedural memory Implicit Priming effects Emotional conditioning Does not require deliberate effort 4 PSY 1000 (Dr. Escobar) Chapter 8 Retrieval Retrieval cues The act of getting information out of memory storage and back into Cues that help us sort through our memories to bring back certain conscious awareness information Recall is the process of accessing memories without cues Encoding specificity: Stimuli encoded along with the memory of an − E.g., essay test experience can serve to retrieve that experience Recognition is the process of identifying information that was − Context-dependent memories (e.g., retrieving in the learning classroom) previously learned when it is encountered again − State-dependent memories (e.g., retrieving in a state of drunkenness if the memory was acquired when drunk) − E.g., multiple-choice test Relearning is fast acquisition of information that was previously acquired and “forgotten” Lashley’s equipotentiality hypothesis Lashley tried to find evidence for memory engrams (groups of neurons that encode a specific memory) Lesions in random places of the cortex of rats 8.2 Parts of the brain involved Rats showed no memory impairment with memory Lashley suggested that memories are distributed evenly around the cortex (equipotentiality): Damage to a specific region cannot remove the memory Henry Molaison The hippocampus (H.M.) Severe seizures as result of an Multiple memory functions: accident at age 7; completely − Spatial memory incapacitated by age 27 − Recognition memory Experimental surgery: bilateral − Transferring memories to LTM medial temporal lobe resection − Formation of new declarative memories Severe memory loss: Incapacity to create new memories No changes in implicit memory Memory = specific structures 5 PSY 1000 (Dr. Escobar) Chapter 8 Other parts of the brain Amygdala: Emotional memories (e.g., fear) Cerebellum: Procedural memories 8.3 Problems with memory Memory reconstruction Suggestibility Reconstruction occurs every time we retrieve a memory: Memories Suggestibility is the effect of misinformation from external sources pulled out of LTM into STM can be modified (we add new events and that leads to the creation of false memories change what we remember) This may result from combining old memories with new memories Eyewitness misidentification The misinformation effect Eyewitness testimony is fraught with errors, inconsistencies, Exposure to inaccurate information can make people misremember reconstructions, and suggestibility the original event It may be better to avoid pressing a witness to prevent suggestion Loftus’ classic studies (e.g., Loftus and Palmer, 1974) effects from contaminating the testimony 6 PSY 1000 (Dr. Escobar) Chapter 8 Repressed memories False memory syndrome: Recall of false autobiographic memories. Difficult to deal with (typically there are no independent witnesses) Most individuals who experience sexual abuse as children have no memory of the abuse as adults, but experience the emotions associated with it Very high risk of suggestibility and false memories Forgetting Memory errors: The 7 sins of memory Forgetting is the loss of information stored in LTM Error Type Definition Example Transience(memory Forgetting Reduced memory over time Forgetting the plot of a decay) movie Blocking (retrieval Forgetting Inability to remember “Tip-of-the-tongue” effect failure) needed information Absentmindedness Forgetting Reduced memory due to Losing your keys (encoding failure) failing to pay attention Persistence Intrusion Inability to forget unwanted Traumatic memories memories Memory errors: The 7 sins of memory Interference Error Type Definition Example Situations in which information stored in LTM becomes inaccessible Misattribution Distortion Assigning a memory to the Falsely thinking that your Proactive interference occurs when old information hinders recall of wrong source professor said something newly-learned information you read in the book Bias Distortion Memories distorted by Hindsight biases (“I knew Retroactive interference occurs when new information hinders recall current belief system it all along”) of old information Suggestibility Distortion Altering a memory Result of leading because of misleading questions information 7 PSY 1000 (Dr. Escobar) Chapter 8 Do you remember your middle school email password? It was… Mid…something…789? Retroactive interference -- new||old Middle school High school College MidSch123 HSStudent456 OU789 Proactive interference -- old||new What is your OU email password? I think it is OU… 456? Amnesia Loss of LTM after disease, or physical or psychological trauma Anterograde amnesia: Amnesia for events that occur after the injury/event Retrograde amnesia: Amnesia for events that occurred before the injury/event Retrograde amnesia 8.4 Ways to enhance memory Past events Injury/trauma Current events Anterograde amnesia Memory-enhancing strategies Tips to study more effectively Chunking can be useful to extend the capacity of STM Use elaborative rehearsal. Deep encoding = better recall Creating retrieval cues: Apply the self-reference effect. Relating things to you = better recall − Menmonic devices such as creating a word with the initials of terms in a list Use distributed practice. Use short, frequent study episodes − Using vivid imagery to remember a name − Writing (especially handwriting) and saying things out loud Rehearse (especially with distributed practice) Study efficiently. Focus on things you don’t already know Be aware of interference and distractions (there’s no multitasking) Stay healthy (healthy body, healthy mind): Exercise and sleep! Use mnemonics. The more ridiculous they are, the more memorable 8