The Green Revolution (BIOB38) PDF

BIOB38: Plants and Society 1-2. Origin of agriculture 3-6. Plant domestication 7-10. Green Revolution & its legacy 11-14. Plants that feed the world 15-16. Plants that please the palate 17-18. Plants that heal the sick 19-20. Plants that hook the mind and body 21-22. Plants the...

BIOB38: Plants and Society 1-2. Origin of agriculture 3-6. Plant domestication 7-10. Green Revolution & its legacy 11-14. Plants that feed the world 15-16. Plants that please the palate 17-18. Plants that heal the sick 19-20. Plants that hook the mind and body 21-22. Plants the world thirsts after 23-24. Plants of warmth and strength Green Revolution 1. Famines: backdrop of the Green Revolution 2. Green Revolution in a nutshell 3. Distribution of food 4. Social negative effects of the GR 5. Ecological negative effects of the GR Thomas Robert Malthus (1766-1834) Sooner or later a population gets checked by famine and disease 1. Introduction and historical overview Famines: historic E.g. India: with no monsoon (El Nino), millions died, again and again Viewed as “unavoidable” by colonial British https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4IAYDWs3Wpc 1. Introduction and historical overview Famines today 1. Introduction and historical overview Green Revolution 1. Famines: backdrop of the Green Revolution 2. Green Revolution in a nutshell: increased food production 3. Distribution of food 4. Social negative effects of the GR 5. Ecological negative effects of the GR Green Revolution From the 1960ies: growth of high-yield and disease-resistant crops Plant engineering programs based on ‘modern’ breeding techniques -Mutation breeding -Backcross breeding Most changed crop plants: wheat and rice (Note: corn was changed most strongly through the invention of hybrid corn before the GR: 1920 and later) 2. Means of increased food production Norman Borlaug (1914-2009) Biggest contributor to the Green Revolution B.Sc. Biology in 1937 PhD in Plant Pathology and Genetics at U Minnesota in 1942 Took position at Rockefeller Foundation research team in Mexico 1944 After his work in Mexico, Borlaug did similar work in India https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fd6YmVnwNJ0 2. Means of increased food production Norman Borlaug (1914-2009) New and productive varieties of wheat & rice 2. Means of increased food production Characters most changed during Green Revolution Wheat (Mexico, India) Loss of day-length sensitivity Introduction of several resistance genes Dwarfing Rice (India) Dwarfing Faster life cycle 2. Means of increased food production Characters changed in wheat Loss of day-length sensitivity → two harvests & cultivation anywhere 2. Means of increased food production Characters changed in wheat Backcrossing: several resistance genes introduced into recipient cultivar Susceptibility Rust fungi on wheat 2. Means of increased food production Characters changed in wheat Dwarfing Shorter, stronger stalks → better support for larger seed heads 2. Means of increased food production Characters changed in rice Dwarf varieties: shorter, less tillering → grown closer to each other Larger roots: maximum use of fertilizers 2. Means of increased food production Characters changed in rice Faster life cycle → more than one crop per year, especially for areas not limited by water 2. Means of increased food production Wheat yields in Mexico, India, Pakistan Start of GR 4-5 fold increase! 2. Means of increased food production Rice production in India Food security since the 1960ies Decreased/no monsoon Increased monsoon 2. Means of increased food production Nobel peace prize 1970: excerpt of his lecture “The green revolution has won a temporary success in man's war against hunger and deprivation; it has given man a breathing space. If fully implemented, the revolution can provide sufficient food for sustenance during the next three Nobel Lecture by decades. Norman Borlaug But the frightening power of human reproduction must also be curbed; otherwise the success of the green revolution will be ephemeral only. Most people still fail to comprehend the magnitude and menace of the "Population Monster”” 2. Means of increased food production Ever increasing harvests: sounds too good to be true? It has not been a success for everyone and everything… 2. Means of increased food production GR → industrialization of agriculture Increased use of Machinery Fertilizers Pesticides Irrigation Big business 2. Means of increased food production Green Revolution 1. Famines: backdrop of the Green Revolution 2. Green Revolution in a nutshell 3. Distribution of food (aka was/is there a real food shortage?) 4. Social negative effects of the GR 5. Ecological negative effects of the GR Famines vs. colonialism Critical view on food shortages vs. food production a. Local (example: India) b. Global 3. Distribution of food: local perspective on India Case study: (British) India Florence Nightingale: critical of the British famine management Transport, distribution Millions 3. Distribution of food: local perspective on India Exports from India, profiting GB Opium Wheat Rice Indigo Cotton 3. Distribution of food: local perspective on India Is food production related to famine? Prof. Amartya Sen: “famines such as the Bengal Famine of 1943 (about 5 million people died) were not caused by decreases in food supply, but by socioeconomic dynamics and a failure of Nobel Prize in Economics public action.” (1998) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Revolution 3. Distribution of food: local perspective on India Food exports under the colonial British 19th century 3. Distribution of food: local perspective on India India’s food security Indian independence: 1947 Food security since 1960ies 3. Distribution of food: local perspective on India Colonialism vs. famines Critical view on food shortages vs. food production a. Local (example: India) Colonialism b. Global Global perspective Between 1960 and 2000 World population > doubled → from 3 to 6 billion Food production increased 2 ½ times Source: http://www.millenniumassessment.org/ 3. Distribution of food: global perspective Where is the surplus food going? 1. Post-harvest loss 2. Obesity pandemic 3. Increased meat production (food for animals) 3. Distribution of food: global perspective Post-harvest losses 3. Distribution of food: global perspective 30% Where is the surplus food going? 1. Post-harvest loss 2. Obesity pandemic 3. Increased meat production (food for animals) 3. Distribution of food: global perspective Obesity pandemic $ $ $ 3. Distribution of food: global perspective Obese adults in population (%) 3. Distribution of food: global perspective Population undernourishment 1990s 2000s High developed countries 0 0 Intermediate developed 20 16 Low developed countries 36 34 High income 0 0 Middle income 14 11 Low income 28 24 World 20 17 (% of total population) Source: HDR2007/2008 3. Distribution of food: global perspective Where is the surplus food going? 1. Post-harvest loss 2. Obesity pandemic 3. Increased meat production (food for animals) 3. Distribution of food: global perspective Increased meat consumption Consumption of meat products 2000 kcal per person per day (pppd) CA: 300 g meat pppd ≈ 500 kcal ≈ 7000 kcal grain/forage Data from http://earthtrends.wri.org/ Pimentel and Pimentel. 2003. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 78: 660-663. 3. Distribution of food: global perspective Green Revolution 1. Famines: backdrop of the Green Revolution 2. Green Revolution in a nutshell (increased food production) 3. Distribution of food 4. Social negative effects of the GR 5. Ecological negative effects of the GR Modern farming = expensive! Poor farmers lose out Hybrid seeds, machinery, fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation $$$$$$$$$$$ 4. Social negative effects of the Green Revolution Green Revolution is demanding more machinery Example Number of tractors per farm in Brazil Modified from Perz. 2000. International Migration Review 34: 842-881 4. Social negative effects of the Green Revolution Green Revolution has led to increased intensification Example Cotton production Modified from Fok et al. 2006. Cahier Agricultures 15: 42-53 4. Social negative effects of the Green Revolution To survive as a farmer in a global setting… …there is pressure to grow ever more produce → application of economical principles (growth, excess consumption) to food production 4. Social negative effects of the Green Revolution Fate of surplus yield Surplus sold locally → drop in local crop prices → less revenue for farmers 4. Social negative effects of the Green Revolution Fate of surplus yield Surplus sold internationally (less left locally) → increase in local crop prices → poor cannot afford food 4. Social negative effects of the Green Revolution Debt: common fate of poor farmers → forced off farm → rural unemployment → migration into cities 4. Social negative effects of the Green Revolution Land exodus: humans move to cities Examples: Brazil Modified from Perz. 2000. International Migration Review 34: 842-881 China Source: World Bank 4. Social negative effects of the Green Revolution Canada: rural population is leaving for the cities too 4. Social negative effects of the Green Revolution 4. Social negative effects of the Green Revolution Increasing global urbanization 4. Social negative effects of the Green Revolution Slums, pavement-dwellers 4. Social negative effects of the Green Revolution Needed: slow-down of migration into cities How? Try to keep small/intermediate farms alive 4. Social negative effects of the Green Revolution Size of farm vs. efficiency/productivity? Goal: feed the hungry AND give them a job & income (Small)/intermediate farms: often very efficient 4. Social negative effects of the Green Revolution Efficiency of farms versus size: example Kenya Modified from Ouma et al. 2006. J. Fac. Agr. 51 : 449–458 4. Social negative effects of the Green Revolution Efficiency of farms versus size: Dairying in North America Milk per cow (hl) 126 133 128 Modified from Cocchi et al. 1998. Can. J. Agr. Econ. 46 : 287-296 4. Social negative effects of the Green Revolution Big farms Intermediate (small) farms Often less yield/acre More motivation for Often land left idle land conservation More -profitable ↑ Employment for the masses -competitive More common overuse of -soil -chemicals -fossil fuel Remove wealth from rural communities 4. Social negative effects of the Green Revolution Protect small/medium farmers! 4. Social negative effects of the Green Revolution Green Revolution gone too wild A country going from importing food to exporting it “Ecological and economic ‘suicide’" Example: India 4. Social negative effects of the Green Revolution Vandana Shiva Major critic of Green Revolution Philosopher, environmental activist, and eco-feminist M.A., Philosophy of Science at U of Guelph (ON) Ph.D. at U of Western Ontario Right Livelihood Award (aka 'Alternative Nobel Prize') Global 500 Award of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) Earth Day International Award of the United Nations (UN) 4. Social negative effects of the Green Revolution Vandana Shiva Criticism toward the Green Revolution: Major social and ecological shortfalls "Ecological problems arise from applying the economical paradigm to life." https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jEqS6rnoyYc Shiva. 1991. The Ecologist 21: 57-60. 4. Social negative effects of the Green Revolution Social negative effects “The Green Revolution has been a failure. It has led to reduced availability of nutritious food ? crops for the local population the displacement of vast numbers of small farmers from their land rural impoverishment increased tensions and conflicts” Shiva. 1991. The Ecologist 21: 57-60. 4. Social negative effects of the Green Revolution Ecological negative effects “The Green Revolution has been a failure. It has led to reduced genetic diversity increased vulnerability to pests soil erosion water shortages reduced soil fertility micronutrient deficiencies soil contamination” Shiva. 1991. The Ecologist 21: 57-60. 4. Social negative effects of the Green Revolution Beneficiaries… “The beneficiaries of the GR have been agrochemical industry large petrochemical companies manufacturers of agricultural machinery dam builders large landowners” Shiva. 1991. The Ecologist 21: 57-60. 4. Social negative effects of the Green Revolution Green Revolution 1. Famines: backdrop of the Green Revolution 2. Green Revolution in a nutshell (increased food production) 3. Distribution of food 4. Social negative effects of the GR 5. Ecological negative effects of the GR A. Loss of crop diversity B. Pesticide resistance C. Unsustainable soil use D. Unsustainable water use E. Unsustainable fossil fuel use Loss of crop diversity i. Crop plant diversity 101 ii. Genetic erosion and its negative effects iii. Measures against genetic erosion 5A. Loss of crop diversity Diversity of ‘varieties,’ ‘cultivars,’ ‘races’ Groupings within a single species Bred in a narrow geographic area through cultivation history A desirable unit intended to be kept unchanged over time 5A. Loss of crop diversity Genetic diversity WITHIN varieties Allelic (genetic) diversity var. 1 var. 2 var. 3 Electrophoretic gel separating different genetic versions of one particular gene of different individuals within one species 5A. Loss of crop diversity Functional diversity WITHIN varieties E.g. Water use efficiency/uptake Nutrient use efficiency/uptake Flowering or fruiting time Winter hardiness Pest resistance Yield Amount of secondary compounds 5A. Loss of crop diversity Morphological diversity WITHIN varieties E.g. Fruit color Fruit size Number of flower organs Height Density of spines 5A. Loss of crop diversity Loss of crop diversity i. Crop plant diversity 101 ii. Genetic erosion and its negative effects iii. Measures against genetic erosion 5A. Loss of crop diversity Crop diversity, past and present Past: Many different, locally-adapted varieties, each generally contained many different genotypes Common bean Phaseolus vulgaris Present: Fewer varieties → focus on high-yield varieties → high genetic uniformity within each variety 5A. Loss of crop diversity: ii. Genetic erosion and its negative effects Hierarchical loss of genetic crop diversity THEN NOW Loss of within- One var. diversity farmer’s field Loss of within & btw-variety diversity Loss of within crop species diversity 5A. Loss of crop diversity: ii. Genetic erosion and its negative effects Genetic erosion Narrow sense: loss of alleles Broad sense: loss of varieties, (erosion of within-variety ie. particular locally adapted genetic diversity) cultivars 5A. Loss of crop diversity: ii. Genetic erosion and its negative effects Causes of genetic erosion in crops From FAO at http://apps3.fao.org/wiews/docs/SWRFULL2.PDF 5A. Loss of crop diversity: ii. Genetic erosion and its negative effects Loss in varieties, US China *Dry beans: 99% (275 → 2) Wheat: 90% (10,000 → 1000) *Wheat: 97% (269 → 9) *Snap beans: 96% (70 → 3) Cabbage: 95% Peas: 94% Corn: 91% *Soy beans: 90% (62 → 6) Apples: 86% (7,098 → 910) Tomatoes: 81% Peanuts: 40% (15 → 9) From FAO at http://apps3.fao.org/wiews/docs/SWRFULL2.PDF *National Research Council 1972, major US crops 5A. Loss of crop diversity: ii. Genetic erosion and its negative effects Hybrid corn from agribusinesses in developed countries One genotype per field… 5A. Loss of crop diversity: ii. Genetic erosion and its negative effects Why is genetic erosion in crops bad? Uniformity per se: not detrimental But Monoculture: more susceptible to pests/crop failure Loss of sources for development of new varieties → changing environment, new pests 5A. Loss of crop diversity: ii. Genetic erosion and its negative effects Irish potato famine: loss of pest resistance Pest: 1 million starved to death Phytophtora infestans (fungus) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bv_s27Zbg90 1 million emigrated 5A. Loss of crop diversity: ii. Genetic erosion and its negative effects Narrow gene pool → pest overcomes defense → crop failure 5A. Loss of crop diversity: ii. Genetic erosion and its negative effects Old varieties as sources for modern cultivars From FAO at http://apps3.fao.org/wiews/docs/SWRFULL2.PDF 5A. Loss of crop diversity: ii. Genetic erosion and its negative effects Loss of crop diversity i. Crop plant diversity 101 ii. Genetic erosion and its negative effects iii. Measures against genetic erosion a. Living collections b. Seed banks c. Cryopreservation 5A. Loss of crop diversity Living collection: In situ conservation ‘In site’ Collect at-risk, old cultivars or crop plants relatives in their wild ranges Grow these genotypes involving farmers or cooperatives near their wild range From FAO at http://apps3.fao.org/wiews/docs/SWRFULL2.PDF 5A. Loss of crop diversity: iii. Measures against genetic erosion Living collection: Ex situ conservation ‘Away from a site’ Collect at-risk cultivars or crop plant relatives in their wild ranges Grow/maintain their genotypes in safe, stable and thus typically ‘rich’ countries Wheat collection in Germany 5A. Loss of crop diversity: iii. Measures against genetic erosion Living collection: Ex situ conservation Cultivars or their wild relatives; genetically unique genotypes From FAO at http://apps3.fao.org/wiews/docs/SWRFULL2.PDF 5A. Loss of crop diversity: iii. Measures against genetic erosion Living collection: Ex situ conservation From FAO at http://apps3.fao.org/wiews/docs/SWRFULL2.PDF 5A. Loss of crop diversity: iii. Measures against genetic erosion Loss of crop diversity i. Crop plant diversity 101 ii. Genetic erosion and its negative effects iii. Measures against genetic erosion a. Living collections b. Seed banks c. Cryopreservation 5A. Loss of crop diversity Save genetic diversity 5A. Loss of crop diversity ≈1700 seedbanks worldwide… Store seeds at -18C (funding, energy) Many of them are vulnerable Lost is forever… 5A. Loss of crop diversity Seed collections; Svalbard Global Seed Vault Stored in permafrost, energy-independent Funded by Norway Approx. 90,000 varieties; >20 million seeds https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QHw4AxJX5Wo 5A. Loss of crop diversity Loss of crop diversity i. Crop plant diversity 101 ii. Genetic erosion and its negative effects iii. Measures against genetic erosion a. Living collections b. Seed banks c. Cryopreservation 5A. Loss of crop diversity Cryopreservation In liquid N: -196°C Physical & metabolic cellular processes effectively stopped, living tissue in a state of suspended animation 5A. Loss of crop diversity: iii. Measures against genetic erosion Green Revolution 1. Famines: backdrop of the Green Revolution 2. Green Revolution in a nutshell (increased food production) 3. Distribution of food 4. Social negative effects of the GR 5. Ecological negative effects of the GR A. Loss of crop diversity B. Pesticide resistance C. Unsustainable soil use D. Unsustainable water use E. Unsustainable fossil fuel use