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GE2101 The Various Contemporary Issues that Bolstered The middle class, collectively called the working class, is the Popular Culture largest and most diverse group of people who lives along and...

GE2101 The Various Contemporary Issues that Bolstered The middle class, collectively called the working class, is the Popular Culture largest and most diverse group of people who lives along and beyond the poverty line. Their income is sufficient to provide some Table of Contents – if not all – the basic necessities in life. In most countries, the middle class serves as the backbone of the economy, which lends Social Classes and Class Struggle 1-4 to their capacity to do diverse labors. Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity, and 4-7 The upper class is a somewhat small group of people who live Expression beyond the poverty line. They have the means to gain all the basic Race, Racism, and Representation 7 - 11 necessities in life – which leads them to invest more in their lives Racial Science 8 and live in luxury. Many aspire to be like them, never realizing the Racial and Cultural Appropriation of 8 - 11 tradeoff: most upperclassmen have the means to spend for their Indigenous Peoples personal happiness but, in turn, make them apathetic and self- Peace Studies 11 centered. References 11 - 12 We have discussed in the Prelim what popular culture is, its categories, and how it spreads. As a medium for the masses, popular culture is a channel that can be described as a democracy: it is made by the people, for the people. As such, people have used popular culture to spearhead topics that many people seldom, if not avoid, making conversations about. Social Classes and Class Struggle One (1) of the most common topics covered by popular culture is the disparity (i.e., marked difference) between social classes. A social class is defined as a group of people within a society who possess the same socioeconomic status (Britannica, 2019). It has been studied extensively in social science, as it was covered by several philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes, Karl Marx, John Locke, Jean- Jacques Rosseau, and Max Weber, to name a few. Generally, the social classes are the ones shown in Figure 1. The lower class is a large group of people who live along or below the poverty line. They generally do not have the means to meet some – if not all – of the basic necessities needed for survival. They are sympathetic to other people because of the community Figure 1. The general hierarchy of the social classes but are themselves victims of anxiety and depression, which push them to do dangerous actions because “… desperate times call for desperate measures” (Money and Happiness, n.d.). These three (3) classes are the remnants of the earlier social classes of the past. Each country has its own social classes. The most famous social class system is the Indian caste system. The caste is divided 03 Handout 1 *Property of STI  [email protected] Page 1 of 12  GE2101 into two (2) major groups, with one (1) group further subdivided into The highest position in Filipino society is covered by two (2) four (4) sections. people: the datu and the babaylan. The babaylan is the highest religious position covered by Filipino women and homosexual men. The datu is the highest position that leads the barangay, where they were elected among the next caste. The maharlika was composed of the feudal lords who agreed to band with each other as an unbreakable alliance. In turn, when one of them is elected to be the datu, the rest become the vassals (i.e., people who hold the land under a more powerful leader for allegiance) of the datu and his heirs. Their Western counterparts are the nobility. The maginoo were the group of people that served under the maharlika as their vassals. Their Western counterparts are the gentry. The timawa were simply the people who lived freely and in the service of the land. These include ordinary folk, scholars, and merchants. The alipin caste is the lowest major caste in the pre-colonial Filipino caste system. However, it is further subdivided into two (2) groups: o The aliping namamahay serve as workers of the land, similar to peasants in Western feudal classes. They were not necessarily poor – they just got a tract of land from the higher castes and vowed to work on them to support the community, which slowly became their property if the produce went well. o The aliping saguiguilid were the lowest of the low because they represent actual slaves. Typically composed of prisoners Figure 2. The Indian caste of war from other tribes or communities, they worked tirelessly Source: https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-indian-cast-system-indian-colonial-what-does-513104 in order to earn their freedom. Once free, they join the timawa. The first group is dedicated to the service of the nobility and the divine, By the time Spain came, the Filipino caste was overhauled and while the second group is dedicated to the service of the common folk changed to put the colonizers on top and the Filipinos down. This is who, in turn, can also serve the first group. This was because the caste called the casta system. The Casta system is an incentivized system system was borne out of the Islamic Rule in the 13 th century, which wherein each casta pays taxes based on their racial heritage. Since was further reinforced during the British Occupation (The Muslims were out fighting the Spaniards during that time, they weren't Untouchables, 2015). classified. Indians didn't become prolific until the very brief British Occupation, but their mixed-race descendants were classified. The Filipino caste system has changed over the years. Its very first iteration was during the pre-colonial period, where men and women shared equal opportunity, as shown in Figure 3 on the next page. 03 Handout 1 *Property of STI  [email protected] Page 2 of 12  GE2101 Figure 3. The pre-colonial Filipino caste Indios (i.e., Filipinos) and Aetas (i.e., Aetas and other indigenous Figure 4. The Spanish-influenced casta tribes) had base taxes; they paid the minimum amount of tax. Sangleys pay quadruple the base tax due to them being Chinese. of them exemplified liberal thinking and empathy towards They were considered outcasts back then, but because of their Filipinos. skills and business acumen, they were invaluable to the o Americanos are simply Spaniards born from the American Spaniards. colonies such as Mexico, Puerto Rico, and Cuba, to name The blancos, which are the top three (3) classifications, were some. They were exempted from paying taxes and held exempted from paying taxes. The Mestizajes pay taxes, however, power and influence next to the Peninsulares. despite having mixed heritage. This is because not all members o Peninsulares were Spaniards that came from the Iberian of the mestizaje contain Spanish blood. The mestizo de sangley, Peninsula, where Spain and Portugal are located. They were for example, were required to pay double the base tax due to their exempted from paying taxes and held the most power and Chinese-Filipino heritages. influence. o The insulares were the first natural-born Filipinos with pure o The Mestizajes were a varied casta because they comprised Spanish blood. Hence, they were also called Filipinos. Some four (4) mixed heritages, of which they had their own hierarchy. 03 Handout 1 *Property of STI  [email protected] Page 3 of 12  GE2101 ▪ The mestizo de Español was the highest of the four (4) 3. Our country is filled with revolutionaries that fought against foreign because it is the intermarriage of a Filipino and a rule. The Katipunan, the local revolts, and the Filipino-American Spaniard. Any Filipino known to be a mestizo de Español War gave us timeless icons that represented class struggle and paid no taxes since they had Spanish blood in them. injustice, such as Andres Bonifacio, Jose Rizal, Diego Silang, ▪ The tornatras was the term used here in the Philippines and his wife Gabriela, and Antonio Luna, to name a few. to classify either a mestizo de Español with Chinese 4. During the Marcos period, people began to notice the rise of blood, a mestizo de Sangley with Spanish blood, or cronyism (i.e., the partial treatment of a leader to his associates someone with Spanish and Chinese blood. They were by giving them high positions in a system) and nepotism (i.e., the usually considered as the odd ones because their mixed partial treatment of a leader to his family and friends by giving heritages meant that their taxations were also confusing. them high positions in a system). By the time Martial Law was ▪ The mestizo de Bombay were people with Filipino and enacted, political opponents, critics, and activists of the Marcoses Bombay (i.e., Indian) heritages. This is because there was and their cronies were detained (with some being tortured and a brief period during the Spanish Occupation that Great executed) after the restoration of the writ of habeas corpus. This Britain conquered Manila for two (2) years, with Indians period is still remembered in the Mendiola Massacre, the joining their ranks. Because of this, the mestizo de cancellation of Voltes V, in the novel (eventually became a film) Bombay paid no taxes since Indians were not part of the Dekada ’70, and to prominent figures of this period such as casta. Benigno “Ninoy” Aquino, Jr., Bonifacio “Boni” Ilagan, and ▪ The mestizo de Sangley were people with Filipino and (infamously) the Marcos family to name a few. This period also Chinese heritages. The lowest among the four (4), they gave us terms such as the Desaparecidos (i.e., Martial Law paid fewer taxes from a Chinese standpoint but paid more victims that are still missing to this day), crony, and Imeldific than indios. (uniquely Filipino, not used internationally), to name a few. As you have noticed, when there’s a disparity between social classes, In general, the idea of class struggle is evident in music such as class struggles would inevitably follow. Upuan (by GLOC-9), Tatsulok (by Bamboo), and Gangsta’s 1. The fall of aristocracy -- and the Tsardom – in Russia marked the Paradise (by Coolio); in films such as Snowpiercer and Parasite beginning of the Soviet Union. Portrayed in international films (both directed by Bong Joon-ho), El Hoyo (EN: The Platform, by such as Romanovy: Ventsenosnaya semya (EN: The Galder Gaztelu-Urrutia) and The Purge (by James DeMonaco); and Romanovs: An Imperial Family) and the animated film Anastasia, in musicals such as Les Misérables and Miss Saigon to name some the fall of the Tsardom and the rise of Marxism came about after popular culture icons. Nicholas II abdicated the throne as a result of the February Revolution. The entire Romanov House was erased, with some of Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity, and Expression their members exiled and others tried and executed. To this day, Humans experience several changes in their bodies when they reach many believe that the last Romanov, Anastasia, was still out there, the puberty stage. Generally, this is the period of self-discovery, which including her descendants (to which none stepped up as of yet). also includes sexual orientation, gender identity, and expression 2. Ernesto “Che” Guevara is a popular icon representing the (or SOGIE). Before diving into this, the definition of sex and gender countercultural movement and rebellion, which earned him must be differentiated first. dichotomous infamy. In life, he was a man who was radicalized Sex refers to the biological trait that determines one’s reproductive from the poverty, hunger, and disease that riddled South America. function based on the gametes present. There are only two (2) He became “Public Enemy No. 1” of the United States after sexes: male (for sperm-carrying gametes) and female (for ovum- leading Central and South American nations to circumvent US carrying gametes). If an individual carries a particular gamete but rule. 03 Handout 1 *Property of STI  [email protected] Page 4 of 12  GE2101 has sex organ(s) different from the normative organ(s) of their respective sex, they are called intersex. Intersex people are people known to be hermaphrodites (a portmanteau of the Greek gods Hermes and Aphrodite). Gender is a spectrum of characteristics of women, men, boys, and girls that are socially constructed, of which it includes norms, behaviors, and roles associated with being one’s self and their relationship with others (World Health Organization, n.d.) In essence, what is one born with is considered as one’s sex, but one’s upbringing, environment, social interactions, stresses, and self- introspection determine their gender. With this, the two (2) terms can now be defined, with gender identity and expression can be further defined into two (2) terms (Planned Parenthood, n.d.). Sexual orientation is the term used to describe one’s inclination to another person in terms of romance (i.e., to love and be loved), emotions, and/or sexual urges. It can be generally defined into two (2) categories, which can overlap with each other. o Androphilia is the term used to describe one’s attraction to men and/or masculinity. Men who are attracted to other men are known as gay, while women who are attracted to men are Figure 5. A simplified chart covering the biological sexes (colored blue and pink) and their potential sexual deemed heterosexual (or straight). orientations (colored green and yellow) o Gynephilia is the term used to describe one’s attraction to women and/or femininity. Men who are attracted to women o People whose gender is identified with the sex they are born are deemed straight, while women who are attracted to other in are categorized under cisgender. Men who identify as women is called a lesbian. male (regardless of sexual orientation) are cis-male, while o People who are experiencing both androphilia and gynephilia women who identify as female (regardless of sexual are called bisexuals since they are at the common ground orientation) are cis-female. between the two (2) sexual orientation groups, termed as o People whose gender is identified with the notion that they ambiphilia. were born in the wrong sex are categorized as transgender. o There are also people that are pansexual because they are Men who identify as female (regardless of sexual orientation) attracted to all people regardless of sexual orientation – are called transwomen, while women who identify as male meaning, they love all sexes (and genders). This sexual (regardless of sexual orientation) are transmen. orientation shares the same spot with bisexuals. o There are people who identify as genderqueer (or simply o There are also people who are asexual – people with no queer) because their gender does not fall into either cis or sexual attraction to other sexual orientations or genders. trans categories. Gender identity is the term used to describe one’s self-evaluation o There are people who do not conform to the categories regarding their gender. Everything can dictate one’s gender, but previously cited. Instead, they chose to be agender because, only the self can identify who they are and who they will show to in their perspective, there is no one gender that can describe the world. This is commonly associated with the gender spectrum. them. This group also includes non-binary people because 03 Handout 1 *Property of STI  [email protected] Page 5 of 12  GE2101 they do not strictly conform to the categories of sexual orientation nor to the categories of gender identity. Gender expression is the term used to describe how people express their gender through actions, mannerisms, and even through fashion choices. Generally, there are three (3) categories of gender expression. o Masculinity is the expression whose qualities or attributes are regarded as characteristically male. This is exemplified by valuing strength, courage, independence, leadership, and assertiveness. Examples of icons of masculinity are the American and Canadian folk hero Paul Bunyan (because of his independence and strength) and Rosie the Riveter (for her independence, determination, and strength). Figure 7. Femininity is more than embracing feminine traits, as men can embrace feminine traits without losing one’s masculinity Sources: https://www.harpersbazaar.com/fashion/trends/g30274211/how-to-dress-like-harry-styles/, https://makina.ph/reel/platinum-karaoke-maria-clara/ Figure 6. Masculinity can take on many forms, from building one’s body to hone one’s physical strength to wearing clothes that resonate with capability and responsibility Sources: https://www.vice.com/en/article/av4emj/hanging-out-with-the-last-living-vikings, https://www.elle.com/fashion/a28557162/power-dressing-package/ Figure 8. Some people view androgyny as “having the best of both worlds,” never realizing the negatives of both o Femininity is the expression whose qualities or attributes are Sources: https://depositphotos.com/stock-photos/androgynous-model.html, https://www.ndtv.com/offbeat/ruby- regarded as characteristically female. This is exemplified by rose-quits-twitter-following-backlash-over-batwoman-casting-1899672 valuing empathy, humility, gracefulness, gentleness, and sensitivity. Examples of icons of femininity are Krishna in o Androgyny is the expression of both male and female Hindu myths (because he exemplified grace, intellect, and qualities or attributes. This is exemplified by expressing strength) and Maria Clara in Noli Me Tangere. gender-neutral characteristics – as such, androgynous men could pass off as feminine, while androgynous women could 03 Handout 1 *Property of STI  [email protected] Page 6 of 12  GE2101 pass off as masculine. Examples of icons of androgyny are The proper use of pronouns to address someone, such as Annie Lennox in Scotland and Yoshiki in Japan. he/him for males, she/her for females, they/them (or sometimes one’s name) for people who want to be gender-neutral; As such, if a person is born male, identifies themselves as male, Equal opportunities and rights for men, women, and the expresses masculine traits, and is not attracted to either men or LGBTQIA+; and women, then he is an asexual cis-male. However, he can also identify Reduce, if not eliminate, gender discrimination in various himself as non-binary since he is asexual towards others. aspects. But, one would definitely ask, “What is the basis for this identity?” The issues of gender are tackled in the songs Sirena (by GLOC-9 and Ebe Dancel), Ituloy Mo Lang (by Siakol), If You Were a Woman (by This confusion is one (1) of several issues confronted by the Bonnie Tyler); and Freedom! ’90 (by George Michael); in the films, LGBTQIA+ community. People have a certain fluidity when it comes Markova: Comfort Gay (by Gil M. Portes), Die Beautiful (by Jun to gender. Everyone can express who they want to be. But when other Robles Lana), and Rainbow’s Sunset (by Joel Lamangan); and in TV people are not educated about the gender spectrum, gender shows such as My Husband’s Lover (by Dominic Zapata), Destiny ambiguity may arise, which can lead to certain issues, such as the Rose (by Don Michael Perez), Dading (by Ricky Davao), Beki Boxer bathroom issue of Gretchen Diez. This leads to other issues, such as (co-directed by Jade Castro and Monti L. Parungao), The Rich Man’s how to address them (i.e., the pronouns debate) and allowing Daughter (by Dominic Zapata), and Pose (by Ryan Murphy, Brad transgendered people to compete in events (which is slowly Falchuk, and Steven Canals) to name a few popular culture icons. diminishing today). Race, Racism, and Representation The biggest issue of the SOGIE is gender inequality. During the pre- Humans have thrived on Earth and are one (1) of the many species of colonial Philippines, both women and men enjoy equal rights. organisms that have successfully lived on every continent except However, when Spain colonized the country, their Western ideals had Antarctica. Much like animals, there are certain animal tendencies cemented the idea that women should serve men and that humans also do, such as finding mates and defending territories. What homosexuals had no place in society – or in the afterlife. This idea had sets humans apart from other animals, however, is that humans are diminished over time, yet it still persists even today. Another issue of the only animals that define “race” as a social construct (and not in its gender inequality is rape. Most of the documented cases of rape in the original biological definition). country are women. However, with gender equality being rallied, more and more rape cases done to men and the LGBTQIA+ community are In a social context, race is the idea that the human species is divided being highlighted, suggesting that the crime is not solely women- into distinct groups based on their shared inherited physical and centered. This is especially highlighted in prisons, as men who do not behavioral differences (Smedley, Wade, & Takezawa, 2020). This display hypermasculine tendencies are abused (Walshe, 2012). notion sprang from the ideologies of the West during the Age of Exploration, where they got to visit lands beyond their own and began Thus, the Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity, and Expression Bill to profile themselves as the superior one above others. (or SOGIE Bill) is written and deliberated in the Legislative branch. This bill, when ratified, ensures that everyone enjoys the same human That idea specifically led to the development of racism, defined as the rights to live, to work, to express themselves, to love and marry the behaviors or attitudes that reflect and foster the belief that race is a ones they love, and to be free of discrimination. This bill includes: fundamental determinant of human traits, where differences make one superior (Merriam-Webster, n.d.). 03 Handout 1 *Property of STI  [email protected] Page 7 of 12  GE2101 These ideas stemmed forth from several factors, with racial science size. After measuring a vast number of skulls from around the as the most dominant factor. world, he concluded that whites have larger skulls than other races, making them “superior” (University of Pennsylvania, 2018). Racial Science Since the Age of Exploration, the European explorers noted that their appearance is markedly different from the other peoples they met on their voyages. And when they started to conquer them, they used various means to deter would-be rebels and revolutionaries. One (1) such method is through religious conversion, where they imposed their religious beliefs on the peoples they conquered. This is evident in the conquest of the Americas and the Philippines. Figure 9. Racial science made us divided because of a lack of understanding about human traits Another method they employed is racial science – the inherent idea Source: https://www.vox.com/2015/1/13/7536655/race-myth-debunked that humankind is split into separate and unequal races (Facing History & Ourselves, n.d.). It is used in pseudoscientific research to This supposed belief had led the Europeans to believe that it was their propagate the concept that one (1) race dominates the others because fate “to lead” the others away from savagery and guide them to they were “the basis on being human.” “sophistication.” This is why racial appropriation existed. The very foundation of racial science, unfortunately, was built upon by Racial and Cultural Appropriation of Indigenous People scientists with no knowledge yet about genetics. Brilliant as they were, Appropriation is defined as the conscientious act of taking something their notions of race were inherently skewed. Four (4) scientists of the for one’s own gain, usually without the expressed permission from the 18th and 19th centuries were notable for promoting racial science. owner. It can be applied to any aspect of one’s life. If used on the Carolus Linnaeus, the “Father of Modern Taxonomy,” paved the aspect of race, it becomes racial appropriation, where it is the act of way to accurately differentiate species from one another. subjugating one race for the benefit of the other (i.e., slavery). However, he was the very first scientist to sort and “categorize” humans. He pointed that, as animals, humans can also be One (1) of the most prominent issues concerning racial appropriation quantified into different subspecies: African, American, Asiatic, is the Black Lives Matter (BLM) Movement. Most people of color in and European (Kenyon-Flatt, 2021). the United States get marginalized, but African-Americans receive the Petrus Camper, a renowned Dutch physician, believed that the most oppression. This is because their entire history in America had ancient Greeks almost achieved human perfection – the ultimate always been rooted in slavery, where countless Africans were basis on “what is human-looking.” Using facial angles, he studied forcefully shipped off their land and brought to new territories to work how other races can be deemed “beautiful” and ranked them on as slaves for their white masters. Although not all white Americans how they resembled his “ideal” appeal (Meijer & Camper, 1997). were hard (to put it lightly) on their slaves, some states in America had Johan Friedrich Blumenbach coined the term “Caucasian” to the slave trade so ingrained in their histories that the entire country describe people that lived on the slopes of Mount Caucasus in was divided and engaged in a bloody Civil War that lasted five (5) Europe, essentially giving a racial name to white people (Bhopal, years because of it. 2007). He also made the sketches shown in Figure 9, noting that people are distinct from other people “by opportunity.” But the end of the Civil War was not the end of colored oppression. Since the war’s end, black people faced even more discrimination, Samuel George Morton, the “Father of American School of particularly in segregation. Education for them was limited since only Ethnography,” theorized that intelligence has a correlation to brain a few schools and universities would accept colored students. Another 03 Handout 1 *Property of STI  [email protected] Page 8 of 12  GE2101 thing that fostered segregation was the redlining of suburban homes, o Isabela segregating people of color and white people even further ▪ Gaddang (CollegeHumor, 2017). o Kalinga ▪ Bontoc Despite the past “Jim Crow policies” (i.e., laws that enforce racial ▪ Gaddang segregation) being abolished and let people of color gain recognition ▪ Isneg and acceptance, equality is not as widespread, and segregation is still ▪ Kalinga evident. Hate crimes against people of color, especially blacks, are on o Mountain Province the rise, more so after sexual orientation and religion (U.S. ▪ Bontoc Department of Justice, n.d.). This unfortunate racial appropriation is o Nueva Vizcaya exemplified in films such as Hidden Figures (by Theodore Melfi), ▪ Ilongot Django Unchained (by Quentin Tarantino), and 12 Years a Slave (by Lumad indigenous peoples Steve McQueen), to name a few. o Bangsamoro (region) ▪ Tiruray (or Teduray) In the Philippines, many of the indigenous tribes also suffered over the o CARAGA (region) course of history. Unlike in the previous discussion, this racial ▪ Banwa-on (or Banwaon) appropriation stemmed from the Spaniards taking the land for ▪ Talandig (or Talaandig) themselves and had the natives toil on it. As a result, they were either ▪ Manobo driven out and fled to the mountains or were converted to Christianity Kamigin due to conformity (Asia-Pacific Human Rights Information Center, ▪ Mamanwa 2010). o Davao (region) ▪ Guiangga There are two (2) distinct names to the indigenous peoples. Luzon ▪ Manobo calls them Igorot (“mountaineer”), while Mindanao calls them Lumad Ata (“indigenous”) (Minority Rights Group International, n.d.). These Tagabawa indigenous peoples used their collective names in identifying ▪ Tagakaolo (or Tagakaulo) themselves. ▪ Mandaya Igorot indigenous peoples ▪ Mansaka o Abra Kalagan ▪ Tinguian ▪ T’boli (or Tagabili) o Apayao o North Mindanao (region) ▪ Bontoc ▪ Bukidnon ▪ Gaddang ▪ Manobo ▪ Isneg Ata ▪ Kalinga o SOCCSKSARGEN (region) o Benguet ▪ Blaan ▪ Ibaloi ▪ Higaonon ▪ Kankanaey ▪ Mamanwa o Ifugao ▪ Manobo ▪ Ifugao Ata 03 Handout 1 *Property of STI  [email protected] Page 9 of 12  GE2101 Dulangan Indigenous peoples frequently butt heads against businesses that Tasaday engage in illegal deforestation, mining, and quarrying. These activities ▪ Kulaman destroy ecosystems, endanger human lives, and extort them of ▪ Sangil (or Sangir) resources for their livelihoods. Another thing they fight hard for is their o Zamboanga Peninsula (region) lands being constructed into subdivisions, nature reserves, or ▪ Subanon (or Subanen) organized farmlands. Though these businesses could help the o Undefined abode indigenous peoples in these businesses, Igorots and Lumads saw ▪ Magguangan themselves being driven out of their lands. All these activities led to ▪ Manobo conflicts, which then the government ordered the area to be placed Bagobo (nomadic) under militarization. Clata (or Guiangan) Tagabawa These events can become disastrous, as evident in the Lumad Ubo (or Ovu) killings, which gained international attention. As such, this racial appropriation, which spanned centuries, is reflected in music such as There are other indigenous tribes in the Philippines not listed in either the songs of ASIN, notably Masdan Mo Ang Kapaligiran, Bayan Ko, group who have also kept their traditions and customs (Valdeavilla, Balita, and Ang Bayan Kong Sinilangan to name a few; while 2018). appreciation for them is seen in movies such as Busong and Baboy Aetas in Eastern Luzon (Atis in the Visayas) Halas. Mangyans in Mindoro Another form of appropriation is cultural appropriation, the use of Badjaos in Sulu objects and/or elements of a non-dominant culture in ways that either All the indigenous tribes in Palawan disrespect the sanctity of the material, discredit the origin of the material, reinforce stereotypes, or contribute to racial oppression. All these indigenous tribes have lived in the country on the lands of their ancestors, preserved their cultures and traditions, and kept their One (1) prime example of cultural appropriation is whitewashing in customs intact. However, with the rapid advancement of civilization, visual entertainment, where white people are cast into characters the local indigenous peoples struggled to keep up. This development that are people of color narrative-wise. An example is the American aggression forced them to defend their ancestral lands, with much of actor Mickey Rooney doing yellowface (i.e., a visual method for white it were forests and mountains teeming with natural resources. And actors to approximate their features to be East Asian) on the film their main opponents? Breakfast at Tiffany’s in order to portray a Japanese character. Another example is the casting of American actor Johnny Depp in the Businesses. More specifically, businesses that require to exploit such role of Tonto, an American Indian, in the movie The Lone Ranger. resources (Philippine Indigenous Peoples Links, n.d.). Another example of cultural appropriation is the model minority Though some business companies engage in fair business practices, myth. When Asians began to migrate to the United States, many such as engaging the indigenous peoples of their business nations struggled to assimilate because of their strong cultural background and their objectives through mutual contracts, other heritage. The United States was so wary of Asians that they even businesses skip the indigenous peoples altogether and proceed to do dubbed them “The Yellow Peril.” their work. These kinds of businesses pushed the indigenous peoples to fight back to defend the lands – not to mention some ethnic But everything changed during the Cold War. squabbles between indigenous peoples. 03 Handout 1 *Property of STI  [email protected] Page 10 of 12  GE2101 In search of allies, the US government began to campaign for Asian Hairstyles, such as the cornrows as “okay” on whites but not on American success stories and lobbied the educated ones to gain people of color, whereas it originally is worn by black people; recognition. Thus, the model minority was made. However, this only Tattoos, such as Chinese scripts used as tattoos, never knowing hindered the other successful minorities, which left them what these scripts mean; and unrecognized, and Asians being stereotyped (CollegeHumor, 2019). Wellness practices, such as people doing yoga without researching (or knowing) its religious roots. (Cuncic, 2020) There are many forms of cultural appropriation, aside from the ones mentioned above. It can occur in: As one may notice, white people had come under fire every time. That Intellectual property, such as stories and knowledge of the is because of the racial privilege they have after the Age of indigenous peoples not being recognized nor credited in research Exploration. However, not all white people are numb nor indifferent to materials; this. Many white people recognized these appropriations and had Artifacts, such as American Indian feather headdresses worn in taken stands to counter them. visual media without consent nor credit; Dance, such as voguing being credited to Madonna instead of the Peace Studies LGBTQIA+ communities in the United States; Since the 21st century is riddled with wars and other acts of violence Clothing and Fashion, such as Gucci selling US$ 800 turbans left and right after the wars that were wrought by the previous century, as an accessory, whereas Sikhs wear them as a symbol of people have begun to study why wars start and how to prevent and/or devotion to their faith; resolve any acts of violence. Now with fields of studies becoming Language, such as the English language used by white people interdisciplinary, a new field of study was born: peace studies. being the “proper” way to speak the language; Music, such as rock music, where white people were credited for Peace studies is an interdisciplinary field that cements itself on the the genre and finding success while black people have been studies on political science, sociology, history, anthropology, theology, playing this genre for years and struggled to gain recognition; psychology, philosophy, and other related fields to provide one with Food, such as a Filipino running an eat-all-you-can ssamgyupsal an understanding of how armed conflicts begin; to give ways on how business, never knowing that Koreans eat ssamgyupsal as bar to prevent and resolve them, and to build peaceful and just systems food; and societies (Kroc Institute for International Peace Studies, n.d.). Religious symbols, such as the revered Manji symbol of Buddhists being converted into the infamous Swastika used by In popular culture, peace studies can take on some of the ideologies the Nazis; found in some countercultures, such as the hippie movement that Decorations, such as selling something as an ethnic decoration promotes peace, as well as some parts of the punk movement that instead of naming where it comes from; acknowledges the flaws of the various government systems. Medicine, such as ridiculing traditional medicine that truly works while accepting pseudoscientific “traditional” medicine, such as References: homeopathy, crystal therapy, and Chinese “traditional” medicines, Aguilar, F. (1998). Elusive peasant, weak state: Sharecropping and as alternatives; the changing meaning of debt. 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