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Microbiology an Introduction Twelfth Edition Chapter 1 The Microbial World and You Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Staphylococcus Aureus B...

Microbiology an Introduction Twelfth Edition Chapter 1 The Microbial World and You Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Staphylococcus Aureus Bacteria Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Microbes in Our Lives (1 of 3) Microorganisms are organisms that are too small to be seen with the unaided eye Microbes include bacteria, fungi, protozoa, microscopic algae, and viruses Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Microbes in Our Lives (2 of 3) A few are pathogenic (disease-producing) Decompose organic waste Generate oxygen by photosynthesis Produce chemical products such as ethanol, acetone, and vitamins (B and K) Produce fermented foods such as vinegar, cheese, and bread Produce products used in manufacturing (e.g., cellulase) and disease treatment (e.g., insulin) Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Designer Jeans: Made by Microbes? Denim fading: Trichoderma fungus Cotton production: Gluconacetobacter bacteria Bleaching: mushroom peroxidase Indigo: Escherichia coli bacteria Plastic: bacterial polyhydroxyalkanoate Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Microbes in Our Lives (3 of 3) Knowledge of microorganisms allows humans to – Prevent food spoilage – Prevent disease – Understand causes and transmission of disease to prevent epidemics Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Naming and Classifying Microorganisms Carolus Linnaeus established the system of scientific nomenclature in 1735 Each organism has two names: the genus and the specific epithet (species name) Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Nomenclature (1 of 4) Scientific names – Are italicized or underlined  The genus is capitalized; the specific epithet is lowercase – Are "Latinized" and used worldwide – May be descriptive or honor a scientist Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Nomenclature (2 of 4) Escherichia coli – Honors the discoverer, Theodor Escherich – Describes the bacterium's habitat—the large intestine, or colon Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Nomenclature (3 of 4) Staphylococcus aureus – Describes the clustered (staphylo-) spherical (coccus) cells – Describes the gold-colored (aureus) colonies Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Nomenclature (4 of 4) After the first use, scientific names may be abbreviated with the first letter of the genus and the specific epithet: – Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus are found in the human body – E. coli is found in the large intestine, and S. aureus is on skin Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Types of Microorganisms Bacteria Archaea Fungi Protozoa Algae Viruses Multicellular Animal Parasites Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Bacteria Prokaryotes – ”Prenucleus" Single-celled Peptidoglycan cell walls Divide via binary fission Derive nutrition from organic or inorganic chemicals or photosynthesis Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Archaea Prokaryotes Lack peptidoglycan cell walls Often live in extreme environments Include: – Methanogens – Extreme halophiles – Extreme thermophiles Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Fungi Eukaryotes – Distinct nucleus Chitin cell walls Absorb organic chemicals for energy Yeasts are unicellular Molds and mushrooms are multicellular – Molds consist of masses of mycelia, which are composed of filaments called hyphae Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Protozoa Eukaryotes Absorb or ingest organic chemicals May be motile via pseudopods, cilia, or flagella Free-living or parasitic (derive nutrients from a living host) Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Algae Eukaryotes Cellulose cell walls Found in freshwater, saltwater, and soil Use photosynthesis for energy Produce oxygen and carbohydrates Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Viruses Acellular Consist of DNA or RNA core Core is surrounded by a protein coat Coat may be enclosed in a lipid envelope Are replicated only when they are in a living host cell Inert outside living hosts (non-living) Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Multicellular Animal Parasites Eukaryotes Multicellular animals Not strictly microorganisms Parasitic flatworms and roundworms are called helminths – Some microscopic size in the stages in their life cycles Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Classification of Microorganisms Developed by Carl Woese Three domains based on cellular organization – Bacteria – Archaea – Eukarya  Protists  Fungi  Plants  Animals Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 10.1 Three-Domain System Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The First Observations 1665: Robert Hooke reported that living things are composed of little boxes, or "cells" – Marked the beginning of cell theory: All living things are composed of cells The first microbes were observed from 1623–1673 by Anton van Leeuwenhoek – "Animalcules" viewed through magnifying lenses (microscope) Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Debate over Spontaneous Generation (1 of 4) Spontaneous generation: the hypothesis that life arises from nonliving matter; a "vital force" is necessary for life Biogenesis: the hypothesis that living cells arise only from preexisting living cells Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Debate over Spontaneous Generation (2 of 4) 1668: Francesco Redi filled jars with decaying meat Conditions Results Jars covered with fine net No maggots Open jars Maggots appeared Sealed jars No maggots From where did the maggots come? What was the purpose of the sealed jars? Spontaneous generation or biogenesis? Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Debate over Spontaneous Generation (3 of 4) 1745: John Needham put boiled nutrient broth into covered flasks Conditions Results Nutrient broth heated, then Microbial growth placed in covered flask From where did the microbes come? Spontaneous generation or biogenesis? Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Debate over Spontaneous Generation (4 of 4) 1765: Lazzaro Spallanzani boiled nutrient solutions in sealed flasks Conditions Results Nutrient broth placed in No microbial growth flask, sealed, then heated Spontaneous generation or biogenesis? Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Theory of Biogenesis (1 of 3) 1858: Rudolf Virchow said cells arise from preexisting cells Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Theory of Biogenesis (2 of 3) 1861: Louis Pasteur demonstrated that microorganisms are present in the air Conditions Results Nutrient broth placed in flask, Microbial growth heated, NOT sealed Nutrient broth placed in flask, No microbial growth heated, then immediately sealed Spontaneous generation or biogenesis? Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Theory of Biogenesis (3 of 3) Pasteur also used S-shaped flasks – Keep microbes out but let air in Broth in flasks showed no signs of life Neck of flask traps microbes Microorganisms originate in air or fluids, not mystical forces Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 1.3 Disproving the Theory of Spontaneous Generation Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Golden Age of Microbiology (1 of 3) 1857–1914 Beginning with Pasteur's work, discoveries included the relationship between microbes and disease, immunity, and antimicrobial drugs Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Golden Age of Microbiology (2 of 3) Pasteur showed that microbes are responsible for fermentation Fermentation is the microbial conversion of sugar to alcohol in the absence of air Microbial growth is also responsible for spoilage of food and beverages Bacteria that use air spoil wine by turning it to vinegar (acetic acid) Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Golden Age of Microbiology (3 of 3) Pasteur demonstrated that these spoilage bacteria could be killed by heat that was not hot enough to evaporate the alcohol in wine Pasteurization is the application of a high heat for a short time to kill harmful bacteria in beverages Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Germ Theory of Disease (1 of 3) 1835: Agostino Bassi showed that a silkworm disease was caused by a fungus 1865: Pasteur showed that another silkworm disease was caused by a protozoan 1840s: Ignaz Semmelweis advocated handwashing to prevent transmission of puerperal fever from one obstetrical patient to another Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Germ Theory of Disease (2 of 3) 1860s: Applying Pasteur's work showing that microbes are in the air, can spoil food, and cause animal diseases, Joseph Lister used a chemical antiseptic (phenol) to prevent surgical wound infections Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Germ Theory of Disease (3 of 3) 1876: Robert Koch discovered that a bacterium causes anthrax and provided the experimental steps, Koch's postulates, to demonstrate that a specific microbe causes a specific disease Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Vaccination 1796: Edward Jenner inoculated a person with cowpox virus, who was then immune from smallpox Vaccination is derived from the Latin word vacca, meaning cow The protection is called immunity Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Birth of Modern Chemotherapy: Dreams of a "Magic Bullet" Treatment of disease with chemicals (natural or synthetic) is called chemotherapy Chemotherapeutic agents used to treat infectious disease can be synthetic drugs (made in the laboratory) or antibiotics Antibiotics are chemicals produced by bacteria and fungi that inhibit or kill other microbes Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The First Synthetic Drugs Quinine from tree bark was long used to treat malaria Paul Ehrlich speculated about a "magic bullet" that could destroy a pathogen without harming the host – 1910: Ehrlich developed a synthetic arsenic drug, salvarsan, to treat syphilis 1930s: Sulfonamides were synthesized Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved A Fortunate Accident—Antibiotics 1928: Alexander Fleming discovered the first antibiotic (by accident) Fleming observed that Penicillium fungus made an antibiotic, penicillin, that killed S. aureus 1940s: Penicillin was tested clinically and mass-produced Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Bacteriology, Mycology, and Parasitology Bacteriology is the study of bacteria Mycology is the study of fungi Parasitology is the study of protozoa and parasitic worms Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 1.6 Parasitology: The Study of Protozoa and Parasitic Worms Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Immunology Immunology is the study of immunity – Vaccines and interferons are used to prevent and cure viral diseases A major advance in immunology occurred in 1933 when Rebecca Lancefield classified streptococci based on their cell wall components (variant within the species) Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Virology Virology is the study of viruses Dmitri Iwanowski in 1892 and Wendell Stanley in 1935 discovered the cause of mosaic disease of tobacco as a virus (TMV) Electron microscopes have made it possible to study the structure of viruses in detail Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Recombinant DNA Technology (1 of 2) Microbial genetics: the study of how microbes inherit traits Molecular biology: the study of how DNA directs protein synthesis Genomics: the study of an organism's genes; has provided new tools for classifying microorganisms Recombinant DNA: DNA made from two different sources – In the 1960s, Paul Berg inserted animal DNA into bacterial DNA, and the bacteria produced an animal protein Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Recombinant DNA Technology (2 of 2) 1941: George Beadle and Edward Tatum showed that genes encode a cell's enzymes 1944: Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty showed that DNA is the hereditary material 1953: James Watson and Francis Crick proposed a model of DNA structure 1961: François Jacob and Jacques Monod discovered the role of mRNA in protein synthesis Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Recycling Vital Elements Microbial ecology is the study of the relationship between microorganisms and their environment Bacteria convert carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus into forms used by plants and animals Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Bioremediation: Using Microbes to Clean Up Pollutants Bacteria degrade organic matter in sewage Bacteria degrade or detoxify pollutants such as oil and mercury Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Insect Pest Control by Microorganisms Microbes that are pathogenic to insects are alternatives to chemical pesticides – Prevent insect damage to agricultural crops and disease transmission Bacillus thuringiensis infections are fatal in many insects but harmless to animals and plants Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Modern Biotechnology and Recombinant DNA Technology Biotechnology is the use of microbes for practical applications, such as producing foods and chemicals Recombinant DNA technology enables bacteria and fungi to produce a variety of proteins, vaccines, and enzymes – Missing or defective genes in human cells can be replaced in gene therapy – Genetically modified bacteria are used to protect crops from insects and from freezing Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Normal Microbiota (1 of 2) Bacteria were once classified as plants, giving rise to the term flora for microbes – This term has been replaced by microbiota Several types of Microbes normally present in bacteria found as and on the human body are part of the normal called normal microbiota microbiota on the surface of the human tongue. Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Normal Microbiota (2 of 2) Normal microbiota prevent growth of pathogens Normal microbiota produce growth factors such as vitamins B and K Resistance is the ability of the body to ward off disease Resistance factors include skin, stomach acid, and antimicrobial chemicals Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved  Beneficial Biofilms Microbes attach to solid surfaces and grow into masses They will grow on rocks, pipes, teeth, and medical implants Biofilms can cause infections and are often resistant to antibiotics Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Emerging Infectious Diseases (1 of 3) When a pathogen invades a host and overcomes the host's resistance, disease results (Infectious disease) Emerging infectious diseases (EIDs): new diseases and diseases increasing in incidence – Evolution of existing organisms – Spread of known disease to a new area – Exposure to new, unusual infectious agents in an area undergoing ecological changes Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Emerging Infectious Diseases (2 of 3) Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) – Caused by Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) – Common to SARS  Severe acute respiratory syndrome – 100 deaths in the Middle East from 2012 to 2014 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Emerging Infectious Diseases (3 of 3) Avian influenza A (H5N1) – Influenza A virus – Primarily in waterfowl and poultry – Sustained human-to-human transmission has not yet occurred Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Emerging Infectious Diseases (1 of 7) Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) – 1950s: Penicillin resistance developed – 1980s: Methicillin resistance – 1990s: MRSA resistance to vancomycin reported  VISA: vancomycin-intermediate S. aureus  VRSA: vancomycin-resistant S. aureus Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Emerging Infectious Diseases (2 of 7) West Nile Encephalitis (WNE) – Caused by West Nile virus – First diagnosed in the West Nile region of Uganda in 1937 – Appeared in New York City in 1999 – In nonmigratory birds in 48 states – Transmitted between birds and to horses and humans by mosquitoes Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Emerging Infectious Diseases (3 of 7) Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) – Caused by a prion  An infectious protein that also causes Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) – New variant of CJD in humans is related to cattle that have been given feed made from prion- infected sheep Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Emerging Infectious Diseases (4 of 7) E. coli O157:H7 – Toxin-producing strain of E. coli – First seen in 1982; causes bloody diarrhea – Leading cause of diarrhea worldwide Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Emerging Infectious Diseases (5 of 7) Ebola hemorrhagic fever (EHF) – Ebola virus – Causes fever, hemorrhaging, and blood clotting – Transmitted via contact with infected blood or body fluids – First identified near Ebola River, Congo – 2014 outbreak in Guinea; hundreds killed Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Emerging Infectious Diseases (6 of 7) Cryptosporidiosis – Cryptosporidium protozoa – First reported in 1976 – Causes 30% of diarrheal illness in developing countries – In the United States, transmitted via water Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Emerging Infectious Diseases (7 of 7) AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) – Caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) – First identified in 1981 – Sexually transmitted infection affecting males and females – Worldwide epidemic infecting 35 million people; 6000 new infections every day – HIV/AIDS in the United States: 26% are female, and 49% are African American Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved