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• The study notes cover key theoretical approaches to understanding International Organizations (IOs), the United Nations and Global Governance, Norms, Constructivism and Global Influence, Peacekeeping and Humanitarian Norms, Feminism, the ILO, and Labour Rights.

Realism and IOs

• Realism's core argument states IOs serve as instruments for powerful states, not autonomous entities.
• Mearsheimer (1995) argues IOs lack independent enforcement power and merely facilitate state interests.
• Regarding security, multilateralism is often overridden by state security concerns.
• NATO's post-Cold War evolution and role in US-led interventions exemplifies these security concerns related to IOs.
• In relative gains, states priortise comparative advantage over collective benefits.
• In absolute gains, IOs encourage cooperation yet states remain cautious of imbalances.

Neo-Liberal Institutionalism

• Its core argument is IOs mitigate anarchy by fostering trust and reducing transaction costs.
• Keohane, Nye, and Axelrod argue that repeated interactions incentivize compliance over time.
• IOs promote cooperation by reducing uncertainty and encouraging reciprocity.
• The WTO's enforcement of trade agreements to prevent economic disputes is an example of Neo-Liberal Institutionalism.

Constructivism and IOs

• Core argument states IOs shape state identities and interests through norms.
• Barnett and Finnemore state IOs establish legitimacy by appearing neutral and authoritative, leading to norm diffusion.
• The IMF's influence over economic policies through expert recommendations exemplifies constructivism.
• Ian Hurd argues IOs function effectively when states accept their authority as legitimate.
• UN peacekeeping, ICJ rulings, and economic governance are examples of constructivism.

Critical Theory and IOs

• Core argument states IOs perpetuate power asymmetries and global inequalities.
• Robert Cox argues IOs reinforce capitalist systems and suppress alternative economic models.
• Gramsci argues IOs shape ideology, presenting neoliberal economic policies as universal.
• Examples that undermine the Global South include: the IMF's structural adjustment programs and the ILO's historical conflicts over labor protections for working-class women.

The United Nations and Global Governance

• Voeten argues the UNSC uses elite pacts where P5 members exert disproportionate influence through informal bargaining.
• Legitimacy ensures compliance but is secondary to power politics in the UNSC.
• Article 51 allows states to seek UN endorsement for military interventions, demonstrated by the Gulf War in 1991.
• Before 1990, Chapter 7 allowed limited military enforcement mechanisms and post-1990, peacekeeping and intervention mandates were expanded.
• Post-Cold War, rising US dominance triggered opposition through UNGA resolutions.
• UNGA criticisms of US-led military actions and symbolic non-binding resolutions challenge superpowers.
• Thompson argues the UN acts as a legitimacy conduit.
• The UN undertakes a two-step process, first communicating coercive threats to reduce resistance, and second, public discourse validates military interventions.
• The 1991 Gulf War, with UN approval, ensured broad coalition support.

International Law and IOs

• Hurd (2014) argues legal framing adapts to major powers' geopolitical interests.
• The Iraq invasion (2003) occurred without explicit UN backing.
• International Court of Justice rulings depend on state compliance, with enforcement reliant on UNSC.
• In Nicaragua v. USA (1984), the US refused ICJ jurisdiction.

Norms, Constructivism, and Global Influence

• Norms, Constructivism, and Global Influence have a Norm Life Cycle, accoridng to Finnemore and Sikkink
• Norm Emergence: Advocacy by norm entrepreneurs.
• Norm Cascade: leads to widespread adoption through IOs and states.
• Norm Internalisation: Becomes accepted as standard practice.
• The Red Cross redefining rules of war and global adoption of women's suffrage are examples of Norms, Constructivism, and Global Influence.

Epistemic Communities and Policy Influence

• IOs act as Knowledge Brokers where the WHO shapes global health policies and the IMF is structuring economic reforms.
• Numbers mask political choices, as seen in World Bank data framing poverty in purely economic terms.

Peacekeeping and Humanitarian Norms

• Bellamy argues, regarding R2P vs. State Sovereignty: ICC indictments deter war criminals from negotiating peace.
• Finnemore states there is selectivity in Humanitarian Interventions such as unequal responses to crises (e.g., Rwanda 1994 vs. Kosovo 1999).
• Autesserre argues social Framing Biases, such as incorrect assessments, misguide intervention strategies.
• Misreading Congo's ongoing violence as post-conflict is an example of Autesserre's point.

Feminism, the ILO, and Labour Rights

• First Wave: Legal equality and suffrage rights.
• Second Wave: Patriarchy critique and structural reforms.
• Third Wave: Intersectionality and racial inclusion.
• Fourth Wave: Integrated struggles of race, gender, and class.

ILO and Gender Policies

• There is Protectionist v. Equality Approach, where initial ILO conventions restricted women's labor participation.
• Marxist feminists opposed bourgeois emphasis on suffrage over economic rights.
• After WW2, there was a shift towards gender parity in labour rights such as 1981 ILO reforms promoting equal parental leave.

Conclusion: IOs – Powerful or Limited?

• Realists: IOs remain subordinate to state interests.
• Neo-Liberals: IOs enhance cooperation but depend on power dynamics.
• Constructivists: IOs shape norms, altering state behaviour over time.
• Critical Theorists: IOs reinforce dominant economic and political structures.

Additional Useful Insights

• Iraq War (2003): UNSC failure to legitimise intervention.
• UN Peacekeeping Missions: Failures in Congo, Lebanon, Somalia.
• ICJ Disputes Beyond Nicaragua broaden legal precedents.

Institutional Politics in IOs

• Thompson's “Transmission Belt” Model involves the role of IOs in shaping intervention narratives.
• Hurd's Perspective on International Law looks at legal flexibility and state compliance.
• Autesserre's Social Frameworks in Peacekeeping looks at the role of misperceptions in failed interventions.

Key IOs Beyond the UN

• ILO's Evolution: From protectionism to gender equality.
• WTO, IMF, and World Bank relate to economic governance and global policy.
• Veto Power and Decision-Making in IOs involves the politics behind symbolic resolutions.