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• Anthropology studies humans
  • Anthropos is Greek for human
  • -logos is Greek for science or "word"
• Biological anthropology studies primates' behavior, ecology, and evolution, including humans
  • It is empirically based
  • It is grounded in the scientific method
  • It is synthetic

What is a Primate?

• Order Primates includes lemurs, lorises, monkeys, apes, and humans
• Carolus Linnaeus formalized the naming system
  • The system was described in the book “Systema Naturae” in 1758
• Linnaean Taxonomic Hierarchy:
  • Kingdom: Animalia
  • Phylum: Chordata
  • Class: Mammalia
  • Order: Primates
  • Family: Hominidae
  • Genus: Homo
  • Species: sapiens
    • Species name should be underlined or in italics
    • Genus name should be capitalized, species name should not be
• Linnaeus included bats as closely related to humans
  • Bats belong to Order Chiroptera
• The “Flying Lemur” or Colugo is closely related to humans
  • Colugos belong to Order Dermoptera
• Tree Shrews are closely related to humans
  • Tree Shrews belong to Order Scandentia
• Primates can be identified by a set of shared characteristics
  • Bats, colugos, and tree shrews do not have these characteristics
  • Primates do have these characteristics
• Primate characteristics include forward-facing eyes
  • Seen in owl monkeys and bushbabies
• Primates have a wide binocular field and stereoscopy, which is a sense of 3-dimensionality
  • Stereoscopy involves the mental fusion of slightly different images from the right and left eyes
  • Binocular vision and stereoscopy are critical for fine depth perception
• Primates have high visual acuity
• Primates have an orbit surrounded by bone
• Primates have larger visual brain areas
• Primates have grasping, prehensile hands and a divergent thumb
• Primates have grasping, prehensile feet and a divergent big toe
• Primates have flattened nails instead of claws
• Primates have large apical pads on the tops of digits
• Primates usually have a small litter size, usually one offspring
• Primates have a slow life history
  • Long gestation periods
  • High infant dependency
  • Long juvenile period
  • Long lifespan
• Most living primates have traits 1-11 because they were present in the last common ancestor (LCA) of primates
• Features not present in the LCA of mammals:
  • Claws
  • Non-prehensile hands and feet
  • Narrow binocular field with relatively poor vision
  • Large litters with short periods of infant dependency

Arboreal vs Visual Predation Hypothesis

• The arboreal hypothesis states that primates evolved from an arboreal ancestor and their unique traits are adaptations to life in trees
  • Supported by Sir Grafton Elliot-Smith
• What is wrong with the Arboreal Hypothesis?
  • Not all arboreal mammals have forward-facing eyes
    • Squirrels are arboreal mammals, but do not have primate characteristics
  • Not all arboreal mammals have grasping hands and feet with nails instead of claws
    • Sloths, bears, and kinkajous are examples
  • Conclusion: arboreality alone is insufficient to account for the evolution of primate characteristics
• The comparative method is important in drawing conclusions
• So who does have forward-facing eyes? Nocturnal visual predators
  • Commonality in prey capture style
    • Many predators capture their prey by mouth
    • Predatory primates, cats, and owls all capture prey with an appendage
    • Binocular vision is important for depth perception to guide strikes
    • Distance between eyes, target, and appendage is functionally analogous
  • The earliest fossil primates were small nocturnal predators
• Small arboreal mammals that inhabit a "fine branch niche" have grasping hands and feet
• The visual predation hypothesis is an alternative explanation
  • Proposed by Matt Cartmill
• The last common ancestor of primates was small, arboreal, nocturnal, a visual predator, and occupied a microhabitat characterized by small-diameter supports
• Largely replaced the arboreal hypothesis

Primate Taxonomy

• Taxonomy is the science of naming and classifying organisms
  • The specific scheme of classification started with Linnaeus
• "-oidea" signifies superfamily
• "-idae" signifies family
• "-inae" signifies subfamily
• Two Taxonomies for Primates: Ecologically-Based (Older Version) and Phylogenetically-Based (Newer Version)
• Ecologically-Based (Older Version)
  • Prosimii include lemurs, lorises, and tarsiers
  • Antropoidea include monkeys, apes, and humans
• Phylogenetically-Based (Newer Version)
• Phylogeny: hypothesis of an organism's evolutionary relationships
• Strepsirrhini include lemurs and lorises
• Haplorhini include tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans

Tarsiers and Strepsirrhines

• Tarsiers
  • Study of an organism's interaction with its environment= Ecology
  • Tarsiers are found only in Asia
  • Tarsiers are 100% faunivorous
    • They only eat small vertebrates instead of fruit
  • Tarsiers have huge eyes because they are nocturnal
  • Tarsiers share some derived (apomorphic) features with anthropoids
    • They have a reduced size and complexity of their nasal cavity
    • They lack a rhinarium
• Strepsirrhines
  • Strepsirrhines are found only in Africa, Asia, and Madagascar
  • Strepsirrhines share some derived (apomorphic) characteristics
    • Sloping talofibular facet
    • Reduced upper incisors
    • Grooming Claw
    • Toothcomb
• Order: Primates
  • Suborder: Strepsirrhini
    • Infraorder: Lemuriformes
      • Lemurs
        • Lemurs are found only in madagascar
        • Family: Indriidae
          • Females are larger than the males
          • These are the largest living lemurs
• Sifaka
  • Exhibit vertical clinging and leaping
• Infraorder: Lemuriformes
  • Family: Lemuridae
    • Includes ringtail, ruffed (varecia), true (eulemur), and bamboo lemurs
    • Females are at the center of the order
  • Family: Lepilemuridae
    • Includes sportive lemurs or lepilemur
    • All energy goes to digesting their food because they have little digestive space
  • Family: Daubentonidae
    • Includes Aye-ayes or Daubentonia madagascariensis
    • Aye-ayes are truly solitary
    • Aye-ayes have the largest brain to their body size
• Infraorder: Lorisiformes
  • Lorisiformes are found in Africa and Asia
  • Family: Galagidae
    • Includes Bushbabies or galago
  • Family: Lorisidae
    • Includes slow loris or lorises
      • The slow loris is the only venomous primate
    • Includes the slender loris, potto, and angwantibo
• Derived Features of Anthropoids
  • Anthropoids
    • Have a Fused frontal
  • Have a Fused mandibular symphysis

Prosimians, Strepsirrhines, Tarsiers, Anthropoids

• Prosimians
  • Have an unfused frontal
  • Have an unfused symphysis
  • Lack of closure
• Larger brain
• Have a lacrimal bone in orbit
• Strepsirrhine
  • Have a postorbital bar only
• Tarsiers
  • Have a partial postorbital plate
• Anthropoid
  • Have a complete postorbital plate
• Semiorder: Haplorhini
• Suborder: Anthropoidea
  • Infraorder: Platyrrhini
    • Monkeys in the Americas (New World Monkeys)
    • Exhibit Zygomatic-parietal contact
    • Have three premolars
    • Lack an ear tube
      • Family: Pitheciidae
        • Sakis, Titis, Uakaris
        • Saki Monkeys
          • Weigh 1-4kg
          • Have a Diet of seeds and fruit
        • Uakaris
          • Weigh 2-4kg
        • The Titi Monkeys
          • Weigh 700-1200g
          • Their diet consists of fruit, leaves, and insects Family: Cebidae
        • Marmosets, tamarins, squirrel monkeys, capuchin
          • Pygmy Marmoset
            • Weigh 130g
            • Their is gums
          • Marmosets weigh 200-350g
      • Family: Atelidae
    • The only group of primates that have a prehensile tail are the spider monkeys and howlers
      • Diet: fruit, insects, gums
    • Femals ususally have twins
    • Capuchin Monkeys use tools
      • Can recognise coalitions
    • Howlers

Old World Monkeys

• Infraorder: Catarrhini (Superfamily:cercopithecoidea)

  • Monkeys are located in Asia and Africa; including Humans

• Frontal-sphenoid contact

• Two premolars

• Have an ear tube

• Subfamily: Colobine

  • High cusps on teeth
  • Complex stomach
  • Colobus Monkeys

• Subfamily: Cercopithecinae

  • Low cusps on teeth
  • Cheek pouches
  • Guenons include red-tailed guenons
  • Vervet Monkeys
  • Patas Monkeys weigh 7-13 kg
  • Baboons
    • Guinea Baboon - Weigh 13-26 kg - Chacma Baboon - Weigh 16-20 kg - Olive Baboon -Weigh 14-28 kg
      • Hamadryas Baboon
  • Geladas - weigh 12-21 kg - Diet of grass - One male with a family of females
  • Drills and Mandrills
  • Shows huge sexual dimorphism
  • Frugivores whose weights range between Drills: 10-17 kg and Mandrills: 12-27 kg - Macaques
    • 5-10 kg
      • Celbes, Rhesus

Hominoidea vs Cercopitheicoids

• Superfamily: Hominoidea - Which includes Apes and HUMANS
  • Originated in Africa and Asia
  • Cercopithecoids
    • Bilophodont molars • Hominoids
• Larger brain
  • Simple molars
• No tail Gibbson's
  • are a Genus of Hylobates
    • They weigh 5-6kg Oraguntans
  • are a Genus of Pongo
    • Great Apes whose weights range between 37-77 kg
      • Diet of ripe fruit
      • Gorillas diet is herbaceous vegetation
      • Bonobo

Scientific Knowledge:

• Scientific Knowledge is Emperical and often Quantitative by observation of the world around us
  • Is Testable and repeatable after experimentation Scientific Hierarchy
  • Data collection
  • The data can be replicated, falsifiable
  • The data can answer why

Hierarchy

• Hypothesis
  • untested but consisted with prior known facts
  • Theory answers why
  • Law states what predict initial conditions
  • Evolution states if its irreducible

Scientific Knowledge

• Well-established facts
  • well explained incorporating
    • facts and lows and tested hypothesis,
      • validation does not change parts of theroy
        • (gravity, plate tectonics, etc.

Allele Frequency & Evolution Levels

• Definition of Evolution: change in allele frequencies in a population over time
  • Small sections of DNA that codes for a protiens
  • Population unnit of genetic evolution
  • Genetic materal mut change for occurence
    • Micro evolution
      • Short term within the span of years
      • The change in gene in genetic
• Macro evolution - origin and extinction - large term over millions of years

Brief Evolution History

• European thoughts durong the Middle Ages:
  • 1. earth at the centre of the unvierse by Ptolemy 140 ad
  • 2. james ussher stated earth's creation would be at sunday october 23 4004 bc Plato believes - The word of ideals - based on ideals -Aristole _ Scala Naturae - linear scale organisms

Great Chain of Being & Linnaeus

Teleology - the use of ultimate purpose - world and centre of universe species do not evolve

• At the top is scala naturea - successful because they are designed. Copernicus - data testing to get the universe that - Hypothesis of empircial shown Galileo - binomial classification - The common ancestors group - grouped humans in
• Shifted thinking from linear to treelike

Homology & Lamarck

• Defined the same organ in different mammals under function Buffon - earths over - notes: similarity of the common ancestry of apes Lamarck
  • HOW evolution may occur _ Changed through siriving - passed the wrong adaptive environmental change.

Darwins Orgin & Mendel

Cuvier Established extinction of epochs in geological events Lyell: all natural changes Darwin of natural selection (1859)

• Malthus economist
• identified the mechanism in how population carries capacity
  • the limited resource
• Much natural Varitions and Struggles
• Mendel Contribtions - Baisc rules of heritability - Genotypes vs Phenotypes - The blending from 1 genration

Evolutionary Requirements

natural selections and modern symthesis Natural selections evolutionary - Variation -heredity - definitions of reproductive success - number of offspring -DNA

Nucleotides & Mutations

• human of 3 billion with 25000 - 1 regulated within the genome - DNA that doesn't can do anything retroivurses

  • compare change to other 3 percent
  • Errors in cell duplication (change of of indivuduals

• types if MUTAGENS

            - Virus
  

  • Most mutations are nuetral and for gens

  • Important points are evolution population

Modern Evolutionary Synthesis

- Allele frequency is genetic drift
  - Natural selection occurs from a random selection
	   - Micro evolution   the evolution in population only
					- Macro  development
			-    The smallest species concept  unit
- Reproduction
  - the prevemtion of  changes occur because it acts to the concept is species where

Speciation Allopatric

• the evolution of change
  • barriers divided and stops
  • geo graphical and reproduction
• Sypatric same coutnry

Speciation continued

• No barrier
  • Very rare happens in population with 2
    • Parapatric
      • no barrier
      • does not flow

Transformation & Phylogeny

• Transformation of species - Cladgenesis spliitng - transformation to species
  • Taxonyony scientific classifications
    • based features
  • model bsaed on shared reationships

Homology

- primitive features from share ancestory
  - is hair an example?

_ Derive features of novol in questsions

• Only show the shared traits in the past
  • shows shared traits

Phylogenies & Parsimony

 - The use of shared traits
        - the common evolution
     - The minimze
-   - When to reconstruct

• Living spiecies Retranspansons - Elolution of social behaviour

Evolutionary

• costs and benefits to group living
  • immigration from a new
    • sex biased despersal
  • influences allele frequency
• defintions

Reporductive vs Fintess

• defintions - through behaviour or genetic -selection should favor indvidauls that make fitness - in terms of genetic - the deicsion on ecology - adaptaion to chnages in hoormones
• Is beavhiour gentically etermined

Genotype & Phenotype

        -  determinsm
          - as long as it influences  evolve
              - to mutipe phenotypes in response to enrinoment
            - Types Reation on the same enviroment

Phenotypes & Genetic Expression

• Changing environmental input
  • Reaction in norms
  • genetic determinsm - nature stimulation
    • An epigneentic mechanim.
    • groups add on deffereniqateions

Genetic expression

     - An epigneentic
            -  groups affect genes