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Chapter Overview

• The chapter explores regional aspirations in India and how the nation addresses unity and diversity

Introduction

• Nation-building is an ongoing process with new challenges and unresolved issues
• Democratic experiments led to regions expressing desires for autonomy, sometimes outside the Indian Union's structure
• These desires often involved prolonged struggle along with armed assertions by people
• Government repression led to resolutions via negotiations or accords between the Union and regional groups

Indian Approach to Diversity

• The core principle is to allow regions and linguistic groups to maintain their distinct cultures
• Indian nationalism aims to balance unity with diversity; therefore the region does not negate the nation
• India differs from many European countries that view cultural diversity as a threat

Democratic Approach to Regionalism

• Democracy permits the expression of regional aspirations and deems it not anti-national
• Political parties can address the public based on regional identity, aspirations, and specific issues
• Simultaneously, democratic politics ensures regional problems receive attention in policymaking

Potential Tensions

• Prioritizing national unity may overshadow regional needs
• Focusing solely on regional concerns can obscure the nation's larger needs
• Conflicts over regional power and rights are standard in nations balancing diversity and unity

Areas of Tension Post-Independence issues

• Immediately after Independence, India has to negotiate the Partition, displacement, integration of Princely States, and state reorganization
• Observers doubted India's long-term unity and regionalism
• The political aspirations of the people of Kashmir became a key issue
• Some parts of the north-east lacked consensus about being part of India, leading to movements for separation from India
• Dravid movement groups briefly considered a separate country
• Afterward, mass agitations occurred across linguistic lines

Linguistic States and Protests

• Regions affected include Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Gujarat
• Southern India, specifically Tamil Nadu witnessed protests against making Hindi the official language
• The north had Pro-Hindi agitations
• Punjabi speakers agitated for a separate state, which was accepted in 1966 with the creation of Punjab and Haryana
• Later, Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand, and Jharkhand were created to meet the diversity challenge
• There have been unresolved challenges in regions like Kashmir and Nagaland
• New challenges came up in Punjab, Assam and Mizoram

Jammu and Kashmir Background

• Jammu and Kashmir had special status under Article 370 of the Indian Constitution
• The region experienced violence, cross-border terrorism, and political instability with internal and external effects
• There was loss of many people including innocent civilians, security personnel and militants
• Large scale displacement of Kashmiri Pandits took place in Kashmir valley

Composition

• The area comprises three social and political regions
• Jammu had foothills and plains, dominated by Hindus
• Muslims, Sikhs and people of other denominations lived there
• The Kashmir region mainly comprises the Kashmir valley and is inhabited mostly by Kashmiri Muslims along with other religions
• Ladakh is mainly mountainous, with a small, almost equally divided Buddhist and Muslim population

Roots of the Problem

• Before 1947, Jammu and Kashmir was a Princely State
• Maharaja Hari Singh, its ruler, wanted independence
• Pakistani leaders believed Kashmir should belong to Pakistan due to its Muslim majority
• Kashmiris saw themselves above all and had regional aspiration of Kashmiriyat
• The National Conference, led by Sheikh Abdullah, wanted autonomy and was against joining Pakistan
• The National Conference was a secular organization and had a long association with the Congress

Accession and Autonomy

• In October 1947, Pakistan sent tribal infiltrators to capture Kashmir
• Maharaja asked for Indian military help, and India drove back the infiltrators after the Maharaja signed an 'Instrument of Accession'
• Pakistan occupied the area and took the issue to the United Nations
• The United Nations recommended Pakistan withdraw its nationals, India reduce its forces, and a plebiscite be conducted, however this resolution never happened
• March 1948 - Sheikh Abdullah became the Prime Minister and India granted provisional autonomy under Article 370

External and Internal Challenges

• Politics remained controversial due to external and interal reasons
• Pakistan claimed it was a part of Pakistan
• Pakistan sponsored a tribal invasion in 1947, resulting in Pakistani control of one part of the State
• India considered POJK under the illegal occupation of Pakistan
• Kashmir became a major point of conflict between India and Pakistan

Internal Disputes

• The question was about Kashmir's status within the Indian Union
• Article 370 provoked two opposite reactions
• Some believed Article 370 did not permit fully complete integration, wishing it to be revoked to treat it like any other state
• Others, mostly Kashmiris, believed Article 370 did not give enough autonomy

Grievances of Kashmiris

• The people felt that the promised Accession referendum was not fulfilled
• The special federal status guaranteed by Article 370 was eroded over time
• Demand for regional autonomy developed over a period in the state
• Democracy in Kashmir was not as well institutionalized as in the rest of India

Sheikh Abdullah and Congress Rule

• Sheikh Abdullah pushed land reforms and policies benefitting locals when he became the Prime Minister
• Differences developed between him and central government about the status of Kashmir
• Sheikh Abdullah was later dismissed in 1953
• The succeeding leadership lacked popular support, relying mainly on support from the Centre
• Allegations of malpractices and rigging occurred in elections
• Congress gained direct state control, several attempts were made to reach an agreement with Sheikh Abdullah

Changes in Governance

• In 1965, a change in the Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir designated the title of Prime Minister of the state as Chief Minister of the state
• Ghulam Mohammed Sadiq of the Indian National Congress became the first Chief Minister

Agreements and Elections

• In 1974, Indira Gandhi reached an agreement with Sheikh Abdullah, who became Chief Minister
• National Conference won the 1977 assembly elections
• Sheikh Abdullah died in 1982, superseded by his son, Farooq Abdullah
• Farooq Abdullah was dismissed from office
• A breakaway faction of the National Conference came to power for a short time

Resentment and Intervention

• The dismissal of Farooq Abdullah's government caused discontent in Kashmir
• Confidence in democratic processes faltered
• Dissatisfaction strengthened with the National Conference partnering with Congress in 1986, which was criticised for being ruled by the party in the Centre
• The Government of India was interjecting in politics of the state

1987 Assembly Election and Insurgency

• In 1987, the Assembly elections were controversial, with the National Conference-Congress alliance showing massive victory
• People believed that the official results did not reflect popular choice and the process was rigged
• The people became critical of the state, augmenting feelings of democratic process being undermined by the state, on behalf of behest of the Centre

Rise of Militancy

• This political crisis intensified as insurgency rose in the form of a militant movement around an independent Kashmiri nation
• Insurgents were supported with moral, material and military from Pakistan
• Throughout from 1990 the state remained in the hands of the armed forces
• Jammu and Kashmir underwent violence at the hands of insurgents and army action
• In 1996, The National Conference, led by Farooq Abdullah came to power based on demand for regional autonomy

Political Instability and Reorganization

• The National Conference leadership failed to win the majority of votes
• A coalition government was formed by the People's Democratic Party (PDP) and Congress
• The Mufti Mohammed led government for the first three years, succeeded Ghulam Nabi Azad, as per the coalition agreement
• After presidents rule was imposed twice another, the NC and INC came into power led by Omar Abdullah
• Continued disturbances led by the Hurriyat Conference
• In 2014 election witnessed the highest number of voters
• Mufti Mohammed Sayeed of the PDP came into power with the BJP as its partner.
• After Mufti Mohammed Sayeed died, his daughter Mahbooba Mufti became the first woman Chief Minister in April 2016

Removal of Article 370

• president's rule followed and the BJP withdrew its support from Mufti government
• August 5, 2019 - Article 370 was abolished by the Jammu & Kashmir Reorganisation Act
• The state was divided into two Union Territories: Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh

Plural Society

• Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh exemplified plural society in India
• Diversities of all kinds exists
• The region has unique political and development aspirations, addressed by the latest Act

Punjab Before Reorganization

• The 1980s also witnessed major developments in the State of Punjab
• Punjab's social composition changed because of Partition and the carving out of Haryana and Himachal Pradesh
• 1966 Linguistic lines were drawn and the Punjabi speaking State came into being
• Akali Dal formed in 1920 as political wing of the Sikhs
• The Sikhs became majority in the truncated State

Political Scenario

• There was two coalition governments
• On both occasions central government dismissed the Akalis
• Political position was not strong
• Akalis did not enjoy strong support among the Hindus
• The Sikh community, like all other religious communities, was divided on caste and class lines
• The Congress got more support among the Dalits than the Akalis

Demand for Political Autonomy

• This demand came in the 1970s
• A resolution was passed at their conference at Anandpur Sahib in 1973
• It asserted regional autonomy and wanted to redefine the connection with the Centre in the country
• The resolution spoke of the aspirations of the Sikh community and declared its achievement
• The Resolution requested the act of strengthening federalism in India
• The Resolution did not have limited appeal among the Sikh people in general

Violence and Turmoil

• Later, After dismissal of Akali government a movement was launched for the distribution of state
• A section of leadership called out autonomous Sikh identity
• Leadership passed on to exteme elements and took armmed insurgence
• Militants made Sikh holy area, the golden temple their headquarters
• The region was turned into an armed fortress
• In June 1984, the Government of India carried of 'Operation Blue Star' that was the code name for army action in the region

Operation Blue Star

• Government successfully took out the miltants
• Damaged holy relic
• Hurt the sentiments of people
• A military openess saw it's way across the state
• Causing the push of militancy

Assassination of Indira Gandhi

• Tragically, There was as assassination of Indira Gandhi
• It was by the bodyguards
• They were of Sikh's and wanted blue star revenue
• Violence broke out in states
• The attacks against people were made
• The attacks were planned
• They loot stores and kill with impunity
• It suggest the surity they were getting

Road to Peace

• After election of the Pime Minister Rajiv Gandhi who started a new dialouge that accured with Aakali leaders
• July 1985, this agreement was reach and was made.
• Rajiv Gandhi Longowal
• Is stepping stone towards the punjab
• In addition Chandigarh would be transpoted to pupbjab, a commison from both sides
• There would be decide the sharing rivers of Ravi Beas
• agreement that was proved to be of great help and assisted by those who were effective by militancy
• There was howere, many peace efforts during the time, and the cycle would stop because the violence would not stop for nearly a decade

After the Assassination and Restoration

• Insurgency violence
• Excesses by the police would trigger the human violence
• Restoring the political process and normal atmosphere was also a issue
• But election held in 1992 and many voted
• Militatncy led out and securoty forcs won
• But the losses hurt Sikh more
• The state would go under major victory by to parties

The North-East

• In the North-East regional inspirations were expressed
• Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram and Meghalaya, which are referred to as “the seven sisters", became states
• The region has limited population
• Its borders connected
• A lot changed for from india
• Other region became independent and became a India independece
• The North-East the land loacked regtion and affected economics
• The State too was affected
• Each state underwent damographic changes
• Isolation of region
• The complicated set of demands from people
• Communication was broken between areas
• At independence the region was not complete except some areas
• Political autonomy arose when the the governtment did not work

Opposition and Protests

• Many communities warted separation
• East india and other people met and wanted more
• State were set for other countries from assam and tripia was upgraded

Movements

• Easy to follow the laws because the constitution provides for diversities
• The governemnt was hard core the most
• State was not good and the best way to get away was the political system
• The Mizos area forindepcnedence and many would not
• Government did not respojn after that and mass famine was issued

Seccessism

• State was made and autonmys followed
• After that the mizos was belidind
• the areas were independent
• state followes more of the commmnmunity

Movements Against Outsiders

• Mass migration into North-East caused problems between local communities and outsiders
• outsiders compete to scare resources
• Issue created violence in North-East
• Assam Movement of 1979-1985 is top such example
• They feared indeginious will be minorities
• there was also employment issue
• State was drinaing natural resources

All Assam Student's

• They took over anti foregeinhers
• faulty resgister from immigrant
• After the movement of the turmoil
• leading to the Sginning and leading leaders