Regional Aspirations - Chapter 7 - PDF

In this chapter… In the first chapter of this book we studied the process of ‘nation-building’ in the first decade after Independ...

In this chapter… In the first chapter of this book we studied the process of ‘nation-building’ in the first decade after Independence. But nation-building is not something that can be accomplished once and for all times to come. In the course of time new challenges came up. Some of the old problems had never been fully resolved. As democratic experiment unfolded, people from different regions began to express their aspirations for autonomy. Sometimes these aspirations were expressed outside the framework of the Indian union. These involved long struggles and often aggressive and armed assertions by the people. This new challenge came to the fore in the 1980s, as the Janata experiment came to an end and there was some political stability at the centre. This decade will be remembered for some major conflicts and accords in the various regions of the country, especially in Assam, the Punjab, Mizoram and the developments in Jammu and Kashmir. In this chapter we study these cases so as to Regional aspirations ask some general questions. are usually expressed in the language of the Which factors contribute to the tensions region and addressed arising out of regional aspirations? to the local population or the rulers. This How has the Indian state responded to unusual poster from these tensions and challenges? Uttarakhand movement appeals to all the What kind of difficulties are faced in Indian citizens in seven balancing democratic rights and national different languages unity? and thus underscores the compatibility of the What are the lessons here for achieving regional aspirations with unity with diversity in a democracy? nationalist sentiments. 2024-25 chap 7_PF.indd 1 18-May-2023 11:30:11 AM  chapter 7 regional aspirations Region and the Nation 1980s may be seen as a period of rising regional aspirations for autonomy, often outside the framework of the Indian Union. These movements frequently involved armed assertions by the people, their repression by the government, and a collapse of the political and electoral processes. It is also not surprising that most of these struggles were long drawn and concluded in negotiated settlements or accords between the central government and the groups leading the movement for autonomy. The accords were reached after a process of dialogue that aimed to settle contentious issues within the constitutional framework. Yet the journey to the accord was always tumultuous and often violent. Indian approach In studying the Indian Constitution and the process of nation-building we have repeatedly come across one basic principle of the Indian approach to diversity – the Indian nation shall not deny the rights of different regions and linguistic groups to retain their own culture. We decided to live a united social life without losing the distinctiveness of the numerous cultures that constituted it. Indian nationalism sought to balance the principles of unity and diversity. The nation would not mean the negation of the region. In this sense the Indian Does it mean approach was very different from the one adopted in many European that regionalism is countries where they saw cultural diversity as a threat to the nation. not as dangerous as communalism? Or may India adopted a democratic approach to the question of diversity. be, not dangerous at Democracy allows the political expressions of regional aspirations all? and does not look upon them as anti-national. Besides, democratic politics allows parties and groups to address the people on the basis of their regional identity, aspiration and specific regional problems. Thus, in the course of democratic politics, regional aspirations get strengthened. At the same time, democratic politics also means that regional issues and problems will receive adequate attention and accommodation in the policy making process. Such an arrangement may sometimes lead to tensions and problems. Sometimes, the concern for national unity may overshadow the regional needs 2024-25 chap 7_PF.indd 2 18-May-2023 11:30:36 AM  114 Politics in India since Independence and aspirations. At other times a concern for region alone may blind us to the larger needs of the nation. Therefore, political conflicts over issues of power of the regions, their rights and their separate existence are common to nations that want to respect diversity while trying to forge and retain unity. Areas of tension In the first chapter you have seen how immediately after Independence our nation had to cope with many difficult issues like Partition, displacement, integration of Princely States, reorganisation of states and so on. Many observers, both within the country and from outside, had predicted that India as one unified country cannot last long. Soon after Independence, the issue of Jammu and Kashmir came up. It was not only a conflict between India and Pakistan. More than that, it was a question of the political aspirations of the people of Kashmir valley. Similarly, in some parts of the north-east, there was no consensus about being a part of India. First Nagaland and then Mizoram witnessed strong movements demanding separation from India. In the south, some groups from the Dravid movement briefly toyed with the idea of a separate country. These events were followed by mass agitations in many parts for the formation of linguistic States. Today’s Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Gujarat were among the regions affected by these agitations. In some parts of southern India, particularly Tamil Nadu, there were protests against making Hindi the official national language of the country. In the north, there were strong pro-Hindi agitations demanding that Why does the challenge always Hindi be made the official language immediately. From the late come from the border 1950s, people speaking the Punjabi language started agitating States? for a separate State for themselves. This demand was finally accepted and the States of Punjab and Haryana were created in 1966. Later, the States of Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand and Jharkhand were created. Thus the challenge of diversity was met by redrawing the internal boundaries of the country. Yet this did not lead to resolution of all problems and for all times. In some regions, like Kashmir and Nagaland, the challenge was so complex that it could not be resolved in the first phase of nation-building. Besides, new challenges came up in States like Punjab, Assam and Mizoram. Let us study these cases in some detail. In this process let us also go back to some of the earlier instances of difficulties of nation building. The successes and failures in these cases are instructive not merely for a study of our past, but also for an understanding of India’s future. 2024-25 chap 7_PF.indd 3 18-May-2023 11:30:36 AM  Regional Aspirations 115 Jammu and Kashmir Union Territories of Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh As you have studied in the previous year, Jammu and Kashmir had a special status under Article 370 of the Indian Constitution. However, in spite of it, Jammu and Kashmir experienced violence, cross border terrorism and political instability with internal and external ramifications. It also resulted in the loss of many lives including that of innocent civilians, security personnel and militants. Besides, there was also a large scale displacement of Kashmiri Pandits from the Kashmir valley. Jammu and Kashmir comprises three social and Source: https://pib.gov.in political regions — Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh. The Jammu region is a mix of foothills and plains. It is predominantly inhabited by the Hindus. Muslims, Sikhs and people of other denominations also reside in this region. The Kashmir region mainly comprises of the Kashmir valley. It is inhabited mostly by Kashmiri Muslims with the remaining being Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists and others. The Ladakh region is mainly mountainous. It has very little population which is almost equally divided between Buddhists and Muslims. Roots of the Problem Before 1947, Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) was a Princely State. Its ruler, Maharaja Hari Singh did not want to merge either with India or Pakistan but to have an independent status for his state. The Pakistani leaders thought that Kashmir region ‘belonged’ to Pakistan, since the majority population of the State was Muslim. But this is not how the people of the state themselves saw it— they thought of themselves as Kashmiris above all. This issue of regional aspiration is known as Kashmiriyat. The popular movement in the State, led by Sheikh Abdullah of the National Conference, wanted to get rid of the Maharaja, but was against joining Pakistan. The National Conference was a secular organisation and had a long association with the Congress. Sheikh Abdullah was a personal friend of some of the leading nationalist leaders including Nehru. 2024-25 chap 7_PF.indd 4 18-May-2023 11:30:36 AM  116 116 Politics in India since Independence E.V. Dravidian movement Ramasami ‘Vadakku Vaazhgiradhu; Therkku Thaeikiradhu’ Naicker [The north thrives even as the south decays]. (1879-1973): This popular slogan sums up the dominant Known as sentiments of one of India’s most effective Periyar (the regional movements, the Dravidian movement, respected); at one point of time. This was one of the strong first regional movements in Indian politics. supporter of Though some sections of this movement atheism; famous for his anti- had ambitions of creating a Dravida nation, caste struggle and rediscovery the movement did not take to arms. It used of Dravidian identity; initially democratic means like public debates and the a worker of the Congress electoral platform to achieve its ends. This party; started the self-respect strategy paid off as the movement acquired movement (1925); led the political power in the State and also became anti-Brahmin movement; influential at the national level. worked for the Justice party and later founded Dravidar The Dravidian movement led to the formation of Kazhagam; opposed to Hindi Dravidar Kazhagam [DK] under the leadership and domination of north India; of Tamil social reformer E.V. Ramasami propounded the thesis that ‘Periyar’. The organisation strongly opposed north Indians and Brahmins the Brahmins’ dominance and affirmed are Aryans. regional pride against the political, economic and cultural domination of the North. Initially, the Dravidian movement spoke in terms of whole the wh whol e of south ole o th India; sou Ind ia; however ndia ia how ho w lack of support from other States limited the indu movement to Tamil Nadu. The DK split and the political pol icall legacy olitittic leg accy of the egac the he : The H movement was transferred r ed to rr to Dravida D avvid Dr da Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK). MKK). ) Credit The DMK made its entry into politics with a three pronged agitation in 1953-54. First, it demanded the restoration of the original name of Kallakudi railway station which had been renamed Dalmiapuram, after an industrial house e from the North. This demand d brought out its opposition to to the North Indian economic mc mi and cultural symbols. The he second agitation was for forr 1965 Nadu, n in Tamil indi agitatio Anti-H 2024-25 chap 7_PF.indd 5 18-May-2023 11:30:37 AM  Regional Aspirations 117 117 giving Tamil cultural history greater importance in school curricula. The third agitation was against the craft education scheme of the State government, which it alleged was linked to the Brahmanical social outlook. It also agitated against making Hindi the country’s official language. The success of the anti-Hindi agitation of 1965 added to the DMK’s popularity. Sustained political agitations brought the DMK to power in the Assembly elections of 1967. Since then, the Dravidian parties have dominated the politics of Tamil Nadu. Though the DMK split after the death of its leader, C. Annadurai, the influence of Dravidian parties in Tamil politics actually increased. After the split there were two parties – the DMK and the All India Anna DMK (AIADMK) – that claimed Dravidian legacy. Both these parties have dominated politics in Tamil Nadu for the last four decades. Since 1996, one of these parties has been a part of the ruling coalition at the Centre. In the 1990s, many other parties have emerged. These include Marumalarchchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (MDMK), Pattali Makkal Katchi (PMK) and Desiya Murpokku Dravidar Kazhagam (DMDK). All these parties have kept alive the issue of regional pride in the politics of Tamil Nadu. Initially seen as a threat to Indian nationalism, regional politics in Tamil Nadu is a good example of the compatibility of regionalism and nationalism. 2024-25 chap 7_PF.indd 6 18-May-2023 11:30:40 AM  118 Politics in India since Independence Credit: Hindustan Times Sheikh In October 1947, Pakistan sent tribal infiltrators Mohammad from its side to capture Kashmir. This forced the Abdullah Maharaja to ask for Indian military help. India extended (1905-1982): the military support and drove back the infiltrators Leader of Jammu from Kashmir valley, but only after the Maharaja and Kashmir; had signed an ‘Instrument of Accession’ with the proponent of Government of India. However, as Pakistan continued autonomy and to control a sizeable part of the state, the issue was secularism for taken to the United Nations Organisation, which in its Jammu and Kashmir; led the resolution dated 21 April 1948 recommended a three popular struggle against princely step process to resolve the issue. Firstly, Pakistan rule; opposed to Pakistan due to had to withdraw its entire nationalities, who entered its non-secular character; leader into Kashmir. Secondly, India needed to progressively of the National Conference; Prime reduce its forces so as to maintain law and order. Minister of J&K immediately Thirdly, a plebiscite was to be conducted in a free after its accession with India in and impartial manner. However, no progress could 1947; dismissed and jailed by be achieved under this resolution. In the meanwhile, Government of India from 1953 to Sheikh Abdullah took over as the Prime Minister of 1964 and again from 1965 to 1968; the State of J&K in March 1948 while India agreed to became Chief Minister of the State grant it provisional autonomy under the Article 370. after an agreement with Indira The head of the government in the State was then Gandhi in 1974. called Prime Minister. 2024-25 chap 7_PF.indd 118 18-03-2024 14:28:02  Regional Aspirations 119 External and internal disputes Let’s watch a Film Since then the politics of Jammu and Roja Kashmir remained controversial and conflict-ridden both for external and internal reasons. Externally, Pakistan has always claimed that Kashmir valley should be part of Pakistan. As we noted above, Pakistan sponsored a tribal invasion of the State in 1947, as a consequence of which one part of the State came under Pakistani control. However, it is the Indian territory which is under illegal occupation of Pakistan called as Pakistan occupied Jammu and Kashmir (POJK). Ever since 1947, Kashmir has remained a major issue of conflict between India and Pakistan. Internally, there is a dispute about the status of Kashmir within Indian union. You have studied about the special Tamil film depicting the travails provisions under Articles 370 and 371 of Roja, a newly wed and doting last year in Indian Constitution at Work. wife when her husband, Rishi, is This special status had provoked two abducted by militants. Rishi is a opposite reactions. There is a section of cryptologist who is assigned duty people outside of J&K that believed that in Kashmir to decode the enem’s messages. As love blossoms the special status of the State conferred by between the husband and the Article 370 did not allow full integration wife, the husband is kidnapped. of the State with India. This section felt The kidnappers demand that that Article 370 be revoked and J&K be their jailed leader, be set free in treated like any other state of India. exchange of Rishi. Another section, mostly Kashmiris, believe that the autonomy conferred by Article 370 is not enough. They had at Roja’s world is shattered and she is seen knocking at the doors of least three major grievances. First, the officials and politicians. Since the promise that Accession would be referred film has the background of Indo- to the people of the State after the Pakistan dispute, it made instant situation created by tribal invasion was appeal. The film was dubbed normalised, has not been fulfilled. This in Hindi and many other Indian generated the demand for a plebiscite. languages. Secondly, there was a feeling that the special federal status guaranteed by Article 370, had been eroded in practice. Year: 1992 This had led to the demand for restoration Director: Maniratnam of autonomy or ‘Greater State Autonomy’. Screenplay: Maniratnam Thirdly, it was felt that democracy which Cast (Hindi version): Madhu, is practiced in the rest of India has not Arvind Swamy, Pankaj Kapoor, been similarly institutionalised in the Janagaraj State of Jammu and Kashmir. 2024-25 chap 7_PF.indd 119 15-03-2024 16:00:37  120 Politics in India since Independence Politics since 1948 After taking over as the Prime Minister, Sheikh Abdullah initiated major land reforms and other policies which benefitted ordinary people. But there was a growing difference between him and the central government about his position on Kashmir’s status. He was dismissed in 1953 and kept in detention for a number of years. The leadership that succeeded him did not enjoy as much popular support and was able to rule the State mainly due to the support of the Centre. There were serious allegations of malpractices and rigging in various elections. During most of the period between 1953 and 1974, the Congress party exercised influence on the politics of the State. A truncated National Conference (minus Sheikh Abdullah) remained in power with the active support of Congress for some time but later it merged with the Congress. Thus, the Congress gained direct control over the government in the state and brought about the changes. In the meanwhile, there were several attempts to reach an agreement between Sheikh Abdullah and the Government of India. A change in the provision of the Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir was made in 1965 by which the Prime Minister of the state was designated as Chief Minister of the state. Accordingly, Ghulam Mohammed Sadiq of the Indian National Congress became the first Chief Minister of the state. Credit: The Times of India 2024-25 chap 7_PF.indd 120 18-03-2024 14:28:36  Regional Aspirations 121 In 1974 Indira Gandhi reached an agreement with Sheikh Abdullah and he became the Chief Minister of the State. He revived the National Conference which was elected with majority in the assembly elections held in 1977. Sheikh Abdullah died in 1982 and the leadership of the National Conference went to his son, Farooq Abdullah, who became the Chief Minister. But he soon was dismissed by the Governor and a breakaway faction of the National Conference came to power for a brief period. The dismissal of Farooq Abdullah’s government due to the intervention of the Centre generated a feeling of resentment in Kashmir. The confidence that Kashmiris had developed in the democratic processes after the accord between Indira Gandhi and Sheikh Abdullah, received a setback. The feeling that the Centre was intervening in politics of the State was further strengthened when the National Conference in 1986 agreed to have an electoral alliance with the Congress, the ruling party in the Centre. Insurgency and After It was in this environment that the 1987 Assembly election took place. The official results showed a massive victory of the National Conference— Congress alliance and Farooq Abdullah returned as Chief Minister. But it was widely believed that the results did not reflect popular choice, and that the entire election process was rigged. A popular resentment had already been brewing in the State against the inefficient administration since early 1980s. This was now augmented by the commonly prevailing feeling that democratic processes were being undermined by the state at the behest of the Centre. This generated a political crisis in Kashmir which became severe with the rise of insurgency. By 1989, the State had come in the grip of a militant movement mobilised around the cause of a separate Kashmiri nation. The insurgents got moral, material and military support from Pakistan. For a number of years the State was under President’s rule and effectively under the control of the armed forces. Throughout the period from 1990, Jammu and Kashmir experienced extraordinary violence at the hands of the insurgents and through army action. Assembly elections in the State were held only in 1996 in which the National Conference led by Farooq Abdullah came to power with a demand for regional autonomy for Jammu and Kashmir. At the end of its term, elections were held in the State in 2002. The National Conference failed to win a majority and was replaced by a coalition government of People’s Democratic Party (PDP) and Congress. 2002 and Beyond As per the coalition agreement, Mufti Mohammed headed the government for the first three years succeeded by Ghulam Nabi Azad 2024-25 chap 7_PF.indd 10 18-May-2023 11:30:43 AM  122 Politics in India since Independence This of the Indian National Congress who however could not complete is all about the term as president rule was imposed in the state in July 2008. governments, officials, The next election was held in November-December 2008. Another leaders, terrorists… but coalition government (composed of NC and INC) came into power what about the people in Jammu and Kashmir? In headed by Omar Abdullah in 2009. However, the state continued a democracy we must go to witness disturbances led by the Hurriyat Conference. In 2014, by what they want, the state went into another election, which recorded the highest shouldn’t we? voters’ turnout in 25 years. Consequently a coalition government led by Mufti Mohammed Sayeed of the PDP came into power with the BJP as its partner. After Mufti Mohammed Sayeed died, his daughter Mahbooba Mufti became the first woman Chief Minister of the state in April 2016. During the tenure of Mahbooba Mufti, major acts of terrorism, mounting external and internal tensions were witnessed. The President’s rule was imposed in June 2018 after BJP withdrew its support to the Mufti government. On 5 August 2019, Article 370 was abolished by the Jammu & Kashmir Reorganisation Act 2019 and the state was constituted into two Union Territories, viz., Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh. Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh are living examples of plural society in India. Not only are there diversities of all kind (religious, cultural, linguistic, ethnic and tribal) but there are also divergent political and developmental aspirations, which have been sought to be achieved by the latest Act. Master Tara Singh Punjab The decade of 1980s also witnessed major developments in the (1885–1967): State of Punjab. The social composition of the State changed first Prominent Sikh with Partition and later on after the carving out of Haryana and religious and political Himachal Pradesh. While the rest of the country was reorganised leader; one of the on linguistic lines in 1950s, Punjab had to wait till 1966 for the early leaders of the creation of a Punjabi speaking State. The Akali Dal, which was Shiromani Gurudwara formed in 1920 as the political wing of the Sikhs, had led the Prabandhak movement for the formation of a ‘Punjabi suba’. The Sikhs were Committee (SGPC); now a majority in the truncated State of Punjab. leader of the Akali movement; supporter of the freedom Political context movement but After the reorganisation, the Akalis came to power in 1967 opposed to Congress’ and then in 1977. On both the occasions it was a coalition policy of negotiating government. The Akalis discovered that despite the redrawing only with the Muslims; of the boundaries, their political position remained precarious. after Independence, Firstly, their government was dismissed by the Centre mid-way he was the senior through its term. Secondly, they did not enjoy strong support most advocate of among the Hindus. Thirdly, the Sikh community, like all other formation of separate religious communities, was internally differentiated on caste and Punjab State. class lines. The Congress got more support among the Dalits, whether Hindu or Sikh, than the Akalis. 2024-25 chap 7_PF.indd 11 18-May-2023 11:30:43 AM  Regional Aspirations 123 It was in this context that during the 1970s a section of Akalis began to demand political autonomy for the region. This was reflected in a resolution passed at their conference at Anandpur Sahib in 1973. The Anandpur Sahib Resolution asserted regional autonomy and wanted to redefine centre-state relationship in the country. The resolution also spoke of the aspirations of the Sikh qaum (community or nation) and declared its goal as attaining the bolbala (dominance or hegemony) of the Sikhs. The Resolution was a plea for strengthening federalism in India. The Resolution had a limited appeal among the Sikh masses. A Sant Harchand few years later, after the Akali government had been dismissed in Singh Longowal 1980, the Akali Dal launched a movement on the question of the (1932–1985): distribution of water between Punjab and its neighbouring States. Sikh political A section of the religious leaders raised the question of autonomous and religious Sikh identity. leader; began his political career Cycle of violence in mid-sixties as an Akali leader; Soon, the leadership of the movement passed from the moderate became president Akalis to the extremist elements and took the form of armed of Akali Dal in insurgency. These militants made their headquarters inside the 1980; reached an Sikh holy shrine, the Golden Temple in Amritsar, and turned it agreement with into an armed fortress. In June 1984, the Government of India Prime Minister carried out ‘Operation Blue Star’, code name for army action Rajiv Gandhi on in the Golden Temple. In this operation, the government could key demands successfully flush out the militants, but it also damaged the of Akalis; historic temple and deeply hurt the sentiments of the Sikhs. A assassinated by large proportion of Sikhs in India and abroad saw the military unidentified Sikh operation as an attack on their faith and this gave further impetus youth. to militant and extremist groups. Still more tragic turn of events complicated the Punjab problem further. Prime Minister Indira Gandhi was assassinated on 31 October 1984 outside her residence by her bodyguards. Both the assassins were Sikhs and wanted to take revenge for Operation Blue Star. While the entire country was shocked by this development, in Delhi and in many parts of northern India violence broke out against the Sikh community. The violence against the Sikhs 2024-25 chap 7_PF.indd 123 15-03-2024 16:01:45  124 Politics in India since Independence “ There is also evidence to show that on 31-10-84 either meetings hu Rai were held or persons who could organise attacks Credit : Rag were contacted and continued for almost a week. More e were given instructions than two thousand Sikhs were e to kill Sikhs and loot killed in the national capital, the e their houses and shops. area worst affected by this violence. e. The attacks were made Hundreds of Sikhs were killed in n in a systematic manner other parts of the country, especially ly and without much fear in places like Kanpur, Bokaro and nd “ of the police, almost suggesting that they were assured that they would not be harmed while committing those acts or Chas. Many Sikh families lost their male members and thus suffered great emotional and heavy financial loss. What hurt the Sikhs most was eir that the government took a long time in restoring normalcy and that the ed ial me even after. perpetrators of this violence were not effectively punished. Twenty years ears later, speaking in the Parliamentt in Justice Nanavati 2005, Prime Minister Manmohan han Commission of Inquiry, Singh expressed regret over these hese Report, Vol. I, 2005 painting ing at a wall killings and apologised to the nation ation Women look sassination. in g In di ra Gandhi’s as for the anti-Sikh violence. depict 2024-25 chap 7_PF.indd 13 18-May-2023 11:30:44 AM  Regional Aspirations 125 “ I have no hesitation in Credit : Times of India apologising not only to The Times of the Sikh community India brought but the whole Indian out a special mid-day nation because what edition on the took place in 1984 is day Indira the negation of the Gandhi was assassinated. concept of nationhood and what is enshrined Road to peace in our Constitution. After coming to power following the election in 1984, the new Prime So, I am not standing Minister Rajiv Gandhi initiated a dialogue with moderate Akali on any false prestige. leaders. In July 1985, he reached an agreement with Harchand On behalf of our Singh Longowal, then the President of the Akali Dal. This agreement, Government, on behalf known as the Rajiv Gandhi - Longowal Accord or the Punjab Accord, of the entire people of was a step towards bringing normalcy to Punjab. It was agreed that Chandigarh would be transferred to Punjab, a separate commission this country, I bow my would be appointed to resolve the border dispute between Punjab head in shame that and Haryana, and a tribunal would be set up to decide the sharing such thing took place. of Ravi-Beas river water among Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan. The But, Sir, there are ebbs, agreement also provided for compensation to and better treatment of there are tides in the those affected by the militancy in Punjab and the withdrawal of the affairs of nations. The application of Armed Forces Special Powers Act in Punjab. past is with us. We However, peace did not come easily or immediately. The cycle cannot rewrite the of violence continued nearly for a decade. Militancy and counter insurgency violence led to excesses by the police and violations of human rights. Politically, it led to fragmentation of the Akali Dal. The central government had to impose President’s rule in the State and the normal electoral and political process was suspended. It was not easy to restore the political process in the atmosphere of suspicion “ past. But as human beings, we have the willpower and we have the ability to write better future for all and violence. When elections were held in Punjab in 1992, only 24 of us. per cent of the electors tuned out to vote. Militancy was eventually eradicated by the security forces. But Prime Minister the losses incurred by the people of Punjab – Sikhs and Hindus alike Dr. Manmohan Singh intervening in Rajya – were enormous. Peace returned to Punjab by the middle of 1990s. Sabha debate on The alliance of Akali Dal (Badal) and the BJP scored a major victory 11 August 2005 in1997, in the first normal elections in the State in the post-militancy era. The State is once again preoccupied with questions of economic development and social change. Though religious identities continue to be important for the people, politics has gradually moved back along secular lines. 2024-25 chap 7_PF.indd 14 18-May-2023 11:30:45 AM  126 Politics in India since Independence The North-East In the North-East, regional aspirations reached a turning point in 1980s. This region now consists of eight States. Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram and Meghalaya, which earlier constituted the North-East region, are often called “the seven sisters”. Sikkim, which has been added to the list is – referred to as the ‘Brother’ to those seven states. The region has only 4 per cent of the country’s population but about twice as much share of its area. A small corridor of about 22 kilometers connects the region to the rest of the country. Otherwise the region shares boundaries with China, Myanmar and Bangladesh and serves as India’s gateway to South East Asia. The region has witnessed a lot of change since 1947. Tripura, Manipur and Khasi Hills of Meghalaya were erstwhile Princely States which merged with India after Independence. The entire region of North-East has undergone considerable political reorganisation. Nagaland State was created in 1963; Manipur, Tripura and Meghalaya in 1972 while Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh became separate States only in 1987. The Partition of India in 1947 had reduced the Note: This illustration North-East to a land locked region and affected its economy. Cut off is not a map drawn to from the rest of India, the region suffered neglect in developmental scale and should not be terms. Its politics too remained insulated. At the same time, most taken to be an authentic States in this region underwent major demographic changes due to depiction of India’s external boundaries. influx of migrants from neighbouring States and countries. The isolation of the region, its complex social character and its backwardness compared to other parts of the country have all resulted in the complicated set of demands from different states of the North-East. The vast international border and weak communication between the North-East and the rest of India have further added to the delicate nature of politics there. Three issues dominate the politics of North-East: demands for autonomy, movements for secession, and opposition to ‘outsiders’. Major initiatives on the first issue in the 1970s set the stage for some dramatic developments on the second and the third in the 1980s. Demands for autonomy At independence the entire region except Manipur and Tripura comprised the State of Assam. Demands for political autonomy arose when the non-Assamese felt that the Assam government was imposing Assamese language on them. 2024-25  Regional Aspirations 127 There were opposition and protest riots throughout the State. Leaders of the major tribal communities wanted to separate from Assam. They My friend formed the Eastern India Tribal Union which later transformed into a Chon said that people in Delhi know more comprehensive All Party Hill Leaders Conference in 1960. They more about the map of demanded a tribal State to be carved out of Assam. Finally instead of Europe than about the one tribal State, several States got carved out of Assam. At different North-East in our country. points of time the Central Government had to create Meghalaya, I think she is right at least Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh out of Assam. Tripura and Manipur about my schoolmates. were upgraded into States too. The reorganisation of the North-East was completed by 1972. But this was not the end of autonomy demands in this region. In Assam, for example, communities like the Bodos, Karbis and Dimasas wanted separate States. They worked for this demand by mobilising public opinion and popular movement as well as through insurgency. Often the same area was claimed by more than one community. It was not possible to go on making smaller and yet smaller States. Therefore, some other provisions of our federal set up were used to satisfy their autonomy demands while remaining in Assam. Karbis and Dimasas have been granted autonomy under District Councils while Bodos were recently granted Autonomous Council. Secessionist movements Demands for autonomy were easier to respond to, for these involved using the various provisions in the Constitution for accommodation of diversities. It was much more difficult when some groups demanded a separate country, not in momentary anger but consistently as a Laldenga principled position. The country’s leadership faced this problem for a (1937-1990): very long time in at least two States in the North-East. A comparison Founder and of these two cases offers us a lesson in democratic politics. leader of the Mizo National After independence, the Mizo Hills area was made an autonomous Front; turned into district within Assam. Some Mizos believed that they were never a a rebel after the part of British India and therefore did not belong to the Indian union. experience of the But the movement for secession gained popular support after the famine in 1959; Assam government failed to respond adequately to the great famine led an armed of 1959 in Mizo hills. The Mizos’ anger led to the formation of the Mizo struggle against National Front (MNF) under the leadership of Laldenga. India for two In 1966 the MNF started an armed campaign for independence. decades; reached Thus, started a two decade long battle between Mizo insurgents and a settlement the Indian army. The MNF fought a guerilla war, got support from and signed an Pakistani government and secured shelter in the then East Pakistan. agreement with The Indian security forces countered it with a series of repressive Prime Minister measures of which the common people were the victims. At one point Rajiv Gandhi in even Air Force was used. These measures caused more anger and 1986; became the alienation among the people. chief minister of the newly created At the end of two decades of insurgency everyone was a loser. State of Mizoram. This is where maturity of the political leadership at both ends made 2024-25 chap 7_PF.indd 127 15-03-2024 16:06:30  128 Politics in India since Independence Credit : Times of India a difference. Laldenga came back from exile in Pakistan and started negotiations with the Indian government. Rajiv Gandhi steered these negotiations to a positive conclusion. In 1986 a peace agreement was signed between Rajiv Gandhi and Laldenga. As per this accord Mizoram was granted full-fledged statehood with special powers and the MNF agreed to give up secessionist struggle. Laldenga took over as the Chief Minister. This accord proved a turning point in the history of Mizoram. Today, Mizoram is one of the most peaceful places in the region and has taken big strides in literacy and development. The story of Nagaland is similar to Mizoram, except that it started much earlier and has not yet had such a happy ending. Led by Angami Zapu Phizo, a section of the Nagas declared independence from India way back in 1951. Phizo turned down many offers of negotiated settlement. The Naga National Council launched an armed struggle for sovereignty of Nagas. After a period of violent insurgency a section of the NF Nagas signed an agreement e by M n o f c ease fir with the government of India Dec laratio 2024-25 chap 7_PF.indd 128 18-03-2024 14:28:53  Regional Aspirations 129 but this was not acceptable to other rebels. The problem in Nagaland still awaits a final resolution. Movements against outsiders The large scale migration into the North-East gave rise to a speciall kind of problem that pitted the ‘local’ communities against people who were seen as ‘outsiders’ or migrants. These latecomers, eitherr from India or abroad are seen as encroachers on scarce resources Angami Zapu like land and potential competitors to employment opportunities and Phizo political power. This issue has taken political and sometimes violentt (1904-1990): form in many States of the North-East. Leader of the The Assam Movement from 1979 to 1985 is the best example movement for of such movements against ‘outsiders’. The Assamese suspected independent that there were huge numbers of illegal Bengali Muslim settlers Nagaland; from Bangladesh. They felt that unless these foreign nationals are president of Naga detected and deported they would reduce the indigenous Assamese National Council; into a minority. There were other economic issues too. There was began an armed widespread poverty and unemployment in Assam despite the struggle against the existence of natural resources like oil, tea and coal. It was felt thatt Indian state; went these were drained out of the State without any commensurate ‘underground’, benefit to the people. stayed in Pakistan and spent the last In 1979 the All Assam Students’ Union (AASU), a students’ three decades of group not affiliated to any party, led an anti-foreigner movement. his life in exile in The movement was against illegal migrations, against domination n UK. of Bengalis and other outsiders, and against faulty voters’ registerr that included the names of lakhs of immigrants. The movementt demanded that all outsiders who had entered the State after 1951 should be sent back. The agitation followed many novel methods and mobilised all sections of Assamese people, drawing support across the State. It also involved many tragic and violent incidents leading to loss of property and human lives. The movement also tried to blockade the movement of trains and the supply of oil from I’ve never Assam to refineries in Bihar. understood this Eventually after six years of turmoil, the Rajiv Gandhi-led insider-outsider business. It’s like the government entered into negotiations with the AASU leaders, train compartment. leading to the signing of an accord in 1985. According to this Someone who got agreement those foreigners who migrated into Assam during and in before others after Bangladesh war and since, were to be identified and deported. treats others as With the successful completion of the movement, the AASU and the outsiders. Asom Gana Sangram Parishad organised themselves as a regional political party called Asom Gana Parishad (AGP). It came to power in 1985 with the promise of resolving the foreign national problem as well as to build a ‘Golden Assam’. Assam accord brought peace and changed the face of politics in Assam, but it did not solve the problem of immigration. The issue of the ‘outsiders’ continues to be a live issue in the politics of Assam 2024-25 chap 7_PF.indd 18 18-May-2023 11:30:46 AM  130 Politics in India since Independence and many other places in the North-East. This problem is particularly acute, for example, in Tripura as the original inhabitants have been reduced to being a minority in their own land. The same feeling informs the hostility of the local population to Chakma refugees in Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh. r u bu Math Ramba on of Carto d it : H T book Cr e e ok at th s , h e r e is a lo ur regions... the new rists in the fo am To end ro or s of ter lhi, Miz activitie arjeeling, De ,D Punjab 2024-25 chap 7_PF.indd 19 18-May-2023 11:30:47 AM  Regional Aspirations 131 Sikkim’s merger At the time of independence, Sikkim was a ‘protectorate’ of India. It meant that while it was not a part of India, it was also not a fully sovereign country. Sikkim’s defence and foreign relations were looked after by India, while the power of internal administration was with the Chogyal, Sikkim’s monarch. This arrangement ran into difficulty as the Chogyal was unable to deal with the democratic aspirations of the people. An overwhelming Kazi Lhendup Dorji majority of Sikkim’s population was Nepali. But the Chogyal was Khangsarpa (1904): seen as perpetuating the rule of a small elite from the minority Leader of democracy Lepcha-Bhutia community. The anti-Chogyal leaders of both the movement in Sikkim; communities sought and got support from the government of founder of Sikkim Praja India. Mandal and later leader of The first democratic elections to Sikkim assembly in 1974 were the Sikkim State Congress; swept by Sikkim Congress which stood for greater integration in 1962 founded the Sikkim with India. The assembly first sought the status of ‘associate National Congress; after an state’ and then in April 1975 passed a resolution asking for electoral victory, he led the full integration with India. This was followed by a hurriedly movement for integration organised referendum that put a stamp of popular approval on of Sikkim with India; after the assembly’s request. The Indian Parliament accepted this the integration, Sikkim request immediately and Sikkim became the 22nd State of Congress merged with the the Indian union. Chogyal did not accept this merger and his Indian National Congress. supporters accused the government of India of foul play and use of force. Yet the merger enjoyed popular support and did not become a divisive issue in Sikkim’s politics. Accommodation and National Integration These cases have shown us that even after 75 years of independence, some of the issues of national integration are not fully resolved. We have seen that regional aspirations ranging from demands of statehood and economic development to autonomy and separation keep coming up. The period since 1980 accentuated these tensions and tested the capacity of democratic politics to accommodate the demands of diverse sections of the society. What lessons can we draw from these examples? First and the most elementary lesson is that regional aspirations are very much a part of democratic politics. Expression of regional issues is not an aberration or an abnormal phenomenon. Even in smaller countries like the United Kingdom there are regional aspirations in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Spain faces secessionist movement from the Basques and so does Sri Lanka from the Tamils. A large and diverse democracy like India must deal with regional aspirations on a regular basis. Nation building is an ongoing process. 2024-25 chap 7_PF.indd 131 15-03-2024 16:09:59 132 Politics in India since Independence The second lesson is that the best way to respond to regional aspirations is through democratic negotiations rather than through suppression. Look at the situation in the eighties – militancy had erupted in Punjab; problems were persisting in the North-East; students in Assam were agitating; Kashmir valley was on the boil. Instead of treating these as simple law and order problems, the Government of India reached negotiated settlement with regional movements. This produced a reconciliation which reduced the tensions existing in many regions. The example of Mizoram shows how political settlement can resolve the problem of separatism effectively. Rajiv Gandhi The third lesson is about the significance of power sharing. It (1944–1991): Prime is not sufficient to have a formal democratic structure. Besides Minister of India that, groups and parties from the region need to be given share between 1984 and in power at the State level. Similarly, it is not sufficient to say 1989; son of Indira that the states or the regions have autonomy in their matters. Gandhi; joined active The regions together form the nation. So, the regions must have politics after 1980; a share in deciding the destiny of the nation. If regions are not reached agreements given a share in the national level decision making, the feeling of with militants in injustice and alienation can spread. Punjab, Mizoram and the students’ union in The fourth lesson is that regional imbalance in economic Assam; pressed for a development contributes to the feeling of regional discrimination. more open economy Regional imbalance is a fact of India’s development experience. and computer Naturally, the backward states or backward regions in some technology; sent states feel that their backwardness should be addressed on Indian Army priority basis and that the policies of the Indian government have contingent on caused this imbalance. If some states remain poor and others the request develop rapidly, it leads to regional imbalances and inter-regional of Sri Lankan migrations. government, to sort Finally, these cases make us appreciate the farsightedness out the Sinhala- of the makers of our Constitution in dealing with questions Tamil conflict; of diversity. The federal system adopted by India is a flexible assassinated by arrangement. While most of the states have equal powers, there suspected LTTE are special provisions for some states like J&K and the states suicide bomber. in the North-East. However, Article 370 that contains special provisions for J&K, was abrogated in August 2019. The Sixth Schedule of the Constitution allows different tribes complete autonomy of preserving their practices and customary laws. These provisions proved crucial in resolving some very complex political problems in the North-East. What distinguishes India from many other countries that face similar challenges is that the constitutional framework in India is much more flexible and accommodative. Therefore, regional aspirations are not encouraged to espouse separatism. Thus, politics in India has succeeded in accepting regionalism as part and parcel of democratic politics. 2024-25  Regional Aspirations 133 133 Goa’s liberation Although the British empire in India came to an end in 1947, Portugal refused to withdraw from the territories of Goa, Diu and Daman which were under its colonial rule since the sixteenth century. During their long rule, the Portuguese suppressed the people of Goa, denied them civil rights, and carried out forced religious conversions. After India’s Independence, the Indian government tried very patiently to persuade the Portuguese government to withdraw. There was also a strong popular movement within Goa for freedom. They were strengthened by socialist satyagrahis from Maharashtra. Finally, in December 1961, the Government of India sent the army which liberated these territories after barely two days of action. Goa, Diu and Daman became Union Territory. Another complication arose soon. Led by the Maharashtrawadi Gomanatak Party (MGP) one section desired that Goa, as a Marathi speaking area should merge with Maharashtra. However, many Goans were keen to retain a separate Goan identity and culture, particularly the Konkani language. They were led by the United Goan Party (UGP). In January 1967, the Central Government held a special ‘opinion poll’ in Goa asking people to decide if they wanted to be part of Maharashtra or remain separate. A referendum-like procedure was used to ascertain people’s wishes on this issue. The majority voted in favour of remaining outside of Maharashtra. Thus, Goa continued as a Union Territory. Finally, in 1987, Goa became a State of the Indian Union. Credit: R.K. Laxman in The Times of India, 21 April 1954 2024-25 chap 7_PF.indd 22 18-May-2023 11:30:48 AM  134 Politics in India since Independence 1. Match the following. A B Nature of regional aspirations States (a) Socio-religious identity i. Nagaland /Mizoram leading to statehood (b) Linguistic identity and ii. Jharkhand /Chattisgarh tensions with Centre (c) Regional imbalance leading iii. Punjab to demand for Statehood (d) Secessionist demands on iv. Tamil Nadu account of tribal identity 2. Regional aspirations of the people of North-East get expressed in different ways. These include movements against outsiders, movement for greater autonomy and movement for separate national existence. On the map of the North-East, using different shades for these three, show the States where these expressions are prominently EXERCISES found. 3. What were the main provisions of the Punjab accord? In what way can they be the basis for further tensions between the Punjab and its neighbouring States? 4. Why did the Anandpur Sahib Resolution become controversial? 5. Explain the internal divisions of the State of Jammu and Kashmir and describe how these lead to multiple regional aspirations in that State. 6. What are the various positions on the issue of regional autonomy for Kashmir? Which of these do you think are justifiable? Give reasons for your answer. 7. The Assam movement was a combination of cultural pride and economic backwardness. Explain. 8. All regional movements need not lead to separatist demands. Explain by giving examples from this chapter. 9. Regional demands from different parts of India exemplify the principle of unity with diversity. Do you agree? Give reasons. 10. Read the passage and answer the questions below: One of Hazarika’s songs.. … dwells on the unity theme; the seven states of north-eastern India become seven sisters born of the same mother. …. ‘Meghalaya went own way…., Arunachal too separated 2024-25 chap 7_PF.indd 23 18-May-2023 11:30:51 AM  Regional Aspirations 135 and Mizoram appeared in Assam’s gateway as a groom to marry another daughter.’ ….. …... The song ends with a determination to keep the unity of the Assamese with other smaller nationalities that are left in the present-day Assam – ‘the Karbis and the Missing brothers and sisters are our dear ones.’ — S B (a) Which unity is the poet talking about? (b) Why were some States of North-East created separately out of the erstwhile State of Assam? (c) Do you think that the same theme of unity could apply to all the regions of India? Why? 2024-25 chap 7_PF.indd 24 18-May-2023 11:30:51 AM