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Questions and Answers
What is the function of the central executive in working memory?
What is the function of the central executive in working memory?
The phonological loop is more difficult to measure than the central executive component of working memory.
The phonological loop is more difficult to measure than the central executive component of working memory.
False
What is the 'span procedure' used for in measuring working memory?
What is the 'span procedure' used for in measuring working memory?
To measure a person's capacity to remember increasingly long sequences of items.
The central executive is crucial for _____ and attention management.
The central executive is crucial for _____ and attention management.
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Match the following components of working memory with their measurement methods:
Match the following components of working memory with their measurement methods:
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Which task requires holding complex mental representations in working memory?
Which task requires holding complex mental representations in working memory?
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Working memory can only store information but not manipulate it.
Working memory can only store information but not manipulate it.
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Name two examples of tasks that require working memory.
Name two examples of tasks that require working memory.
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What does the Operation Span task measure?
What does the Operation Span task measure?
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Long-term memory has a limited capacity.
Long-term memory has a limited capacity.
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What is the primary distinction within long-term memory?
What is the primary distinction within long-term memory?
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Memory that involves procedures so well-acquired that they have become automatic is known as ______.
Memory that involves procedures so well-acquired that they have become automatic is known as ______.
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Match the type of memory with its description:
Match the type of memory with its description:
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Which of the following is an example of implicit memory?
Which of the following is an example of implicit memory?
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Priming only occurs in conscious memory retrieval.
Priming only occurs in conscious memory retrieval.
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Long-term memory includes everything you remember from yesterday or even a couple of ______ ago.
Long-term memory includes everything you remember from yesterday or even a couple of ______ ago.
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Which of the following animals is considered more typical of the 'bird' category?
Which of the following animals is considered more typical of the 'bird' category?
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What is the primary purpose of the DRM paradigm?
What is the primary purpose of the DRM paradigm?
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The critical lure is a word that is included in the list presented during the DRM paradigm.
The critical lure is a word that is included in the list presented during the DRM paradigm.
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All birds can fly, making flying a necessary characteristic of the bird category.
All birds can fly, making flying a necessary characteristic of the bird category.
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What effect does the wording of a question have on eyewitness memory, according to Loftus and Palmer's experiments?
What effect does the wording of a question have on eyewitness memory, according to Loftus and Palmer's experiments?
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What theory explains the concept of 'typicality' in categorization?
What theory explains the concept of 'typicality' in categorization?
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In the family resemblance theory, an item must possess many features shared with other items in the same category and _____ features that are common in other categories.
In the family resemblance theory, an item must possess many features shared with other items in the same category and _____ features that are common in other categories.
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In the DRM paradigm, participants are likely to falsely remember a word related to the underlying _____ of the list.
In the DRM paradigm, participants are likely to falsely remember a word related to the underlying _____ of the list.
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Match the following effects with their descriptions:
Match the following effects with their descriptions:
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Which of the following is an example of an item that may belong to multiple categories?
Which of the following is an example of an item that may belong to multiple categories?
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Which of the following scenarios exemplifies the misinformation effect?
Which of the following scenarios exemplifies the misinformation effect?
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Typicality in categorization can be solely determined by the frequency of encounter with the item.
Typicality in categorization can be solely determined by the frequency of encounter with the item.
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What characteristic is necessary for an animal to be classified as a bird?
What characteristic is necessary for an animal to be classified as a bird?
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Participants were more likely to recall broken glass after being asked leading questions.
Participants were more likely to recall broken glass after being asked leading questions.
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What is the term for the phenomenon where false memories are created based on subtle cues from external information?
What is the term for the phenomenon where false memories are created based on subtle cues from external information?
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Match the following animals with their typicality in the bird category:
Match the following animals with their typicality in the bird category:
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What do categorical theories of emotions suggest about basic emotions?
What do categorical theories of emotions suggest about basic emotions?
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Affective neuroscience only studies human emotional responses.
Affective neuroscience only studies human emotional responses.
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What is one method that affective neuroscience uses to study human emotional responses?
What is one method that affective neuroscience uses to study human emotional responses?
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The small group of basic emotions in categorical theories is believed to produce __________ emotions when combined.
The small group of basic emotions in categorical theories is believed to produce __________ emotions when combined.
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Match the brain imaging technique to its characteristic:
Match the brain imaging technique to its characteristic:
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Which of the following statements accurately reflects affective neuroscience?
Which of the following statements accurately reflects affective neuroscience?
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Animal research provides unreliable models for understanding human affective processes.
Animal research provides unreliable models for understanding human affective processes.
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What is one reason why affective neuroscience is necessary for treating affective disorders?
What is one reason why affective neuroscience is necessary for treating affective disorders?
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What does the term 'bounded rationality' refer to?
What does the term 'bounded rationality' refer to?
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Deductive reasoning is often described as a 'bottom-up' approach.
Deductive reasoning is often described as a 'bottom-up' approach.
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What is a key characteristic of a syllogism?
What is a key characteristic of a syllogism?
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Simon introduced the concept of ___________ to describe limitations in human thought processes.
Simon introduced the concept of ___________ to describe limitations in human thought processes.
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Match the reasoning type with its description:
Match the reasoning type with its description:
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According to Tversky and Kahneman, what significantly affects our reasoning?
According to Tversky and Kahneman, what significantly affects our reasoning?
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The Wason selection task demonstrates that humans are naturally good at deductive reasoning.
The Wason selection task demonstrates that humans are naturally good at deductive reasoning.
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What is required for valid deductive reasoning according to the content?
What is required for valid deductive reasoning according to the content?
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Study Notes
Memory and Working Memory
- Memory stores all lifetime learned information, including episodes, meanings of words, and core notions about oneself.
- Working memory holds information temporarily to support reasoning, problem-solving, and decision-making.
- Three fundamental memory processes are encoding (acquiring information), storage (maintaining), and retrieval (accessing).
- Memory failure can result from issues in any of these processes.
- Memory systems are more complex than a simple dichotomy between short-term and long-term memory.
- Short-term memory (now working memory) is likened to RAM (storing limited amount of information briefly).
- Long-term memory is more like a hard disk (storing large amount of information permanently).
- Working memory has a "central executive" and "slave systems" (visuospatial sketchpad and phonological loop) for temporary storage.
One Memory or Many Memories
- Memory involves temporary and permanent systems (e.g. sensory register, short-term memory).
- Temporary systems include sensory registers and short-term memory (STM).
- Sensory registers briefly hold sensory information for each sense (visual, auditory, etc.).
- Limited capacity in STM (e.g. 5-9 items). It is quickly lost unless rehearsed.
- Information can be transferred to long-term storage (LTM), which has virtually unlimited capacity and duration.
Multi-store Model
- The model proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) describes memory as a three-stage process.
- Memory traces enter three storage systems—sensory register, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM)—before being encoded permanently.
Measuring Working Memory Capacity
- Span procedure: measuring WM capacity by presenting increasingly longer sequences of items and observing the maximum remembered.
- Methods to measure different components of working memory exist, for example, the Digit Span subtest.
Permanent Systems (Long-Term Memory)
- LTM stores information permanently, virtually unlimited in capacity and duration.
- LTM has two broad categories: explicit and implicit.
Explicit vs Implicit Memory
- Explicit (declarative) memory is consciously accessed, often in verbal form.
- Implicit (nondeclarative) memory is non-verbal and potentially unconscious.
Episodic vs Semantic Memory
- Episodic: memories of specific past events in a specific time and place, rich in sensory details.
- Semantic: memories of general factual knowledge, detached from specific times or places.
Source Monitoring
- Ability to recall the source or origin of an event.
Episodic Future Thinking
- Mentally simulating future events relies on retrieving relevant past memories.
Autobiographical Memory
- A complex blend of memories of specific and recurring events, integrated into a narrative of self.
Prospective Memory
- Remembering to perform a planned action in the future, often in response to an event or at a specific time.
Memory Errors
- Forgetting is failing to access a memory.
- Misremembering is retrieving a distorted memory or one that never happened.
- Memory errors can be adaptive.
Memory Distortions by Misinformation
- External information can be incorporated into existing memories, even with subtle cues.
Memory Errors Are "Adaptive"
- Forgetting and misremembering, while seemingly problematic, can be byproducts of adaptive properties of memory.
Forgetting
- Lack of encoding (missed the information): Sometimes external information is never encoded in the first place.
- Decay (memories fading over time): Memories can weaken over time if not rehearsed or recalled.
- Lack of cues for retrieval (missing prompts): Lack of relevant reminders prevents recall.
- Interference: Retrieving one memory can hinder retrieving another similar one.
- Deliberate suppression (actively forgetting): Trying to avoid recalling specific memories.
Interference
- Proactive interference: Older memories disrupt the retrieval of newer ones.
- Retroactive interference: Newer memories hinder the retrieval of older ones.
Memory Reconstructive, Not Photographic
- Memory is like reconstructing a play, using existing elements and adding personal touches, rather than playing a taped recording.
- Memory can be significantly influenced and potentially distorted over time due to new information, inferences, or inferences based on prior memories.
- Misremembering, including false memories, is a potential consequence of the reconstructive nature of memory.
How Semantic Schemas Affect Memory
- Schemas (pre-existing knowledge) influence our memory of events: Schema consistent details are more likely to be remembered and remembered over time compared to schema-inconsistent details.
- Schema-consistent information can result in false memories, as people may believe they saw things that weren't present in the original experience.
How Cultural Schemas Affect Memory
- Cultural schemas can affect memory by distorting the recollection of events, as individuals tend to reshape their memories over time to fit into their known cultural expectations.
The Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) Paradigm
- A common research method that demonstrates false memories.
- Involves a list of words (related by a hidden theme) and participants are often able to recall a word (the "critical lure") which was not listed but represents the hidden theme.
Memory Distortions by Misinformation
- People are susceptible to incorporating misleading information.
Memory Distortions by Misinformation - Experimentation
- Experimental studies demonstrate that even subtle cues (wording, context) influence eyewitness' memories and perceived details, even over extended periods (e.g., a week).
- Misinformation can create false memories, where people "remember" things that didn't actually happen (e.g., seeing broken glass that wasn't there in a car accident).
Memory, Emotions, and Subjective Time
- Emotional intensity affects our subjective experience of time: emotionally arousing experiences are remembered longer/stronger compared to neutral ones.
- Emotions affect memory: unpleasant or negative memories are remembered better than neutral or pleasant memories. This is theorized to be due to the amygdala's activation during emotional events.
The Role of Emotions
- Emotions serve functions both within individuals (intrapersonal) and with others (interpersonal).
- Emotions have social and cultural functions, affecting how we experience and express them.
- Emotions are part of our motivations.
- Motivation is a powerful internal force that initiates and directs our actions.
Motivation: Theories
- Instincts: Innate, biologically-driven behaviors (e.g., hunting, mating, migrating).
- Drives: Internal tensions that motivate behavior to maintain homeostasis (e.g., hunger, thirst).
- Needs: Psychological states that determine behavior and change situations that are not satisfying (e.g., achievement, affiliation, power).
- Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: A five-stage model wherein individuals have to satisfy lower level needs before progressing to higher levels, ranging from physiological needs to self-actualization.
- McClelland's Motives: theory focused on achievement, affiliation, and power as primary motivators.
Motivation: Cognitive Approach
- Self-efficacy: Belief in one's ability to succeed in a specific situation. It predicts both motivation and actual performance.
- Weiner's causal attributions: The explanations individuals form for their successes and failures.
- Bandura's social cognitive theory: Emphasizes the importance of observations, reinforcement, and personal characteristics (like self-efficacy) in learning and behavior.
Language
- Language is a uniquely human, complex system of communication.
- Language involves a combination of phonemes, morphemes, and grammar.
Stages of Language Acquisition
- Newborns can recognize speech sounds, especially their own native language, and start making sounds (babbling) and single word utterances based on their experiences with their surroundings.
- Phrases and sentences begin to emerge as vocabularies grow.
Language Structures
- Phonemes: the smallest units of sound in a language.
- Morphemes: the smallest units of meaning in a language.
- Syntax: rules for combining words to create sentences and phrases.
Language and Cognition
- Language shapes our thoughts and worldview, influencing how we categorize our experiences.
- Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: the structure of a language can affect how its speakers conceptualize the world.
The Relationship Between Language and Cognition
- Language enables us to communicate with others, predict experiences, and solve complex tasks.
Measuring Intelligence
- Intelligence is multi-faceted with different potential measurements: Verbal, Visual-Spatial, Fluid Reasoning, Working Memory and Processing Speed are measured in different tests and indices.
- The most well-known intelligence tests include the Wechsler scales for use across the lifespan (WPPSI, WISC, WAIS).
Theories of Intelligence
- Unitary views: Spearman's "g factor": a general intelligence, underlying various intellectual abilities.
- Multi-component views: Thurstone's Primary Mental Abilities: Multiple elements of intelligence.
- Hierarchical views: Cattell's fluid and crystallized intelligence and Carroll's three-stratum model: combining aspects of unitary and multi-component models.
- Multiple intelligences: Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences: Suggesting multiple forms of intelligence (musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal).
The Flynn Effect
- Average IQ scores have risen steadily across generations.
Personality Theories
- Lay Definitions: focus on social attractiveness, behaviours.
- Nomothetic: personality traits are assumed to be stable across time and situations with a focus on generalizing across people.
- Idiographic: emphasis on individual characteristics and experiences, seeking to capture uniqueness in each individual.
- Trait Theories: personality is organized into enduring characteristics—traits—that influence behaviour.
- Psychoanalytic Theories: personality is formed by unconscious conflicts and internal motivational forces.
- Social-cognitive Theories: personality is a continuous interaction of internal variables, behaviors, and environment.
- Humanistic Theories: emphasizes a person's potential for growth and self-actualization.
Personality Disorders
- Persistent patterns of maladaptive traits and behaviours that disrupt an individual's functioning.
Personality Inventories
- Questionnaires that assess personality traits with specific items representing particular personality traits.
- Big 5 Inventory: assesses the Big Five personality dimensions: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness to experience.
Projective Tests
- Presenting ambiguous stimuli like pictures or inkblots and asking individuals to interpret them, revealing unconscious feelings, motives, and conflicts.
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Description
This quiz explores key concepts related to working memory, including the role of the central executive, phonological loop, and various measurement methods such as the span procedure. Test your knowledge on memory tasks, types of long-term memory, and the distinction between implicit and explicit memory.
