Voluntary and Autonomic Nervous Systems
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Questions and Answers

Which bodily function is primarily governed by the voluntary nervous system?

  • Controlling skeletal muscle movement (correct)
  • Regulating heart rate
  • Digesting food
  • Activating sweat glands

Which of the following is an example of consciously influencing the autonomic nervous system?

  • Using biofeedback to lower heart rate (correct)
  • Digesting food
  • Sweating in response to heat
  • Breathing while sleeping

What is the primary role of the sympathetic nervous system during a stressful situation?

  • To regulate body temperature through sweating
  • To promote relaxation and digestion
  • To prepare the body for 'fight or flight' by activating various physiological responses (correct)
  • To conserve energy by slowing down bodily functions

The release of adrenaline by nerve endings is most directly associated with the activation of which system?

<p>Sympathetic nervous system (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What physiological response results from the activation of sympathetic projections to the tiny muscles attached to hairs on the body?

<p>Gooseflesh (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which activity does NOT involve the voluntary nervous system significantly?

<p>Blushing when embarrassed (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do the sympathetic nervous system's projections extend throughout the body?

<p>They exit the spine and branch out to nearly every organ, blood vessel, and sweat gland (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following responses would be LEAST likely to be mediated by the sympathetic nervous system during a high-stress situation like narrowly avoiding a car accident?

<p>Stimulation of salivation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario exemplifies how humans uniquely experience anticipatory stress compared to other animals?

<p>An executive worrying about a potential company merger impacting job security next year. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the stress response differ when activated by a genuine threat versus an imagined one?

<p>The physiological response is protective when the threat is real, but can be detrimental when there is no real threat. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following situations best illustrates a stressor as defined in the content?

<p>Experiencing a sudden drop in blood sugar levels. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of the body's stress-response mechanism?

<p>To reestablish the body's homeostatic balance. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario exemplifies a psychological stressor unique to humans, as opposed to a physical one?

<p>Worrying about financial debt. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If an individual experiences chronic anxiety about potential future events with little control, how would the content describe this?

<p>A manifestation of paranoia or neurosis. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Suppose a student feels stressed before an exam. How would the content characterize this stress response?

<p>An anticipatory stress-response. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Considering both physical and psychological stressors, which situation would likely evoke the strongest stress-response?

<p>Enduring prolonged exposure to extreme cold without adequate clothing. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Shelley Taylor's research suggests that the traditional 'fight-or-flight' response to stress:

<p>Has been overemphasized due to a historical bias in research towards studying males. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Shelley Taylor, what is the primary focus of the 'tend and befriend' stress response in females?

<p>Nurturing offspring and seeking social connections for mutual support. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does oxytocin contribute to the 'tend and befriend' response in females?

<p>By promoting social bonding, maternal behavior, and pair-bond formation. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone, besides glucocorticoids and sympathetic nervous system hormones, is particularly linked to the 'tend and befriend' response?

<p>Oxytocin (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a critique of Taylor's 'tend and befriend' theory regarding female stress responses?

<p>Females are sometimes aggressive, particularly to protect their young, and may engage in hunting. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of studying gender differences in stress responses?

<p>To counteract biases in research and gain a more comprehensive understanding of stress responses. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How might having dependent young influence a female's stress response, according to Taylor's theory?

<p>It often makes 'flight' less feasible, favoring strategies centered around nurturing and seeking social support. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why might the traditional 'fight-or-flight' response be considered an incomplete model for understanding stress?

<p>Because it primarily focuses on male responses and overlooks alternative strategies like 'tend and befriend'. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Selye's initial concept of the stress response, which of the following is true?

<p>All stressors elicit the same generalized pattern of hormone secretion, regardless of the specific stressor. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do the sympathetic nervous system and glucocorticoid responses differ in rodents facing social stressors, according to James Henry's research?

<p>The sympathetic nervous system is primarily activated in vigilant rodents, whereas the glucocorticoid system is more active in rodents that have given up coping. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In humans, what might sympathetic arousal and heavy secretion of glucocorticoids indicate, respectively?

<p>Sympathetic arousal indicates anxiety and vigilance, while heavy glucocorticoid secretion is more indicative of depression. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements accurately describes the relationship between epinephrine and glucocorticoids in the stress response?

<p>Epinephrine and glucocorticoids, both secreted by the adrenal gland, can enhance each other's release. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by the statement that a stress signature can 'sneak in through the back door'?

<p>The same stress hormones are released, but tissues can respond differently to the stress hormones depending on the stressor. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key difference between the stress response described by Selye and the more nuanced understanding that has developed since?

<p>Selye's model emphasized a uniform response to all stressors, while later research has shown variations in the speed, magnitude, and specific hormones involved. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the role of the brain in initiating the stress response?

<p>A single pathway in the brain can simultaneously stimulate CRH release from the hypothalamus and activate the sympathetic nervous system. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Based on the information, what is the MOST accurate conclusion about the endocrine response to stressors?

<p>The orchestration and pattern of hormone release may vary, resulting in a particular hormonal 'signature' for a specific stressor. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why does acute stress worsen myocardial ischemia in individuals with chronic coronary artery disease?

<p>The sympathetic nervous system response to acute stress causes coronary arteries to vasoconstrict, reducing oxygen and glucose supply to the heart. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between the body's response to stress in healthy individuals versus those with chronic myocardial ischemia?

<p>Healthy individuals experience vasodilation in essential areas, while those with ischemia experience vasoconstriction of coronary arteries. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is 'ambulatory electrocardiography' and why was it important?

<p>A miniature ECG machine that can be worn during daily activities, revealing 'silent' ischemic episodes triggered by psychological stress. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why were cardiologists surprised by the findings from ambulatory electrocardiography?

<p>It revealed that ischemic episodes could occur frequently without pain and be triggered by psychological stressors. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is angina pectoris, and how is it related to myocardial ischemia?

<p>Chest pain caused by a shortage of oxygen to the heart muscle, resulting from myocardial ischemia. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the content, what is the effect of psychological stressors on individuals at risk for heart disease?

<p>Psychological stressors may trigger silent ischemic episodes, even without physical exertion. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is chronic myocardial ischemia considered a 'pre-existing problem' that stress can worsen?

<p>Because it creates a condition where the heart already receives insufficient blood flow, which stress can further reduce. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Based on the information, how does chronic myocardial ischemia impact the coronary arteries' response to the sympathetic nervous system during stress?

<p>The coronary arteries vasoconstrict, reducing oxygen delivery to the heart. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is it detrimental to chronically activate the sympathetic nervous system in response to psychological stressors?

<p>It impairs the ability of the parasympathetic nervous system to slow down the heart, even when not stressed. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the vagus nerve contribute to calming the cardiovascular system after a stressor?

<p>By activating the parasympathetic nervous system, which slows down the heart. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does minimal variability in interbeat intervals (heart rate) during inhalation and exhalation indicate?

<p>A parasympathetic component that has difficulty activating the vagus nerve to slow the heart. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why do cardiologists monitor the interbeat intervals to assess cardiovascular health?

<p>To evaluate the balance between sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system activity. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the content, what physiological process is associated with extended exhalations, and why is it significant?

<p>Activation of the parasympathetic nervous system and vagus nerve, slowing down the heart rate. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does chronic stress affect the cardiovascular system's response to subsequent stressors?

<p>It gradually damages the cardiovascular system, making it more vulnerable to subsequent stressors. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the physiological effect of inhaling on the cardiovascular system, and how does it relate to heart rate variability?

<p>It activates the sympathetic nervous system, slightly speeding up the heart rate. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between chronic stress, damage to the cardiovascular system, and the likelihood of cardiac events during stressors?

<p>Chronic stress gradually damages the cardiovascular system, increasing the likelihood of cardiac events during stressors. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Stressor

An external factor that disrupts homeostatic balancce

Stress-response

The body's response to re-establish homeostasis disrupted by a stressor.

Anticipatory Stress

Activating a stress response based on the anticipation of a stressor, not the stressor itself.

Human Stressors

Unlike animals, humans stress about future events, not just immediate threats.

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Physical Stressors

Threats that include hunger, injury, blood loss or temperature extremes.

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Psychological Stressors

Threats that include mortgages, or the inevitability of death.

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Adaptive Anticipation

When cognitive skills allow us to prepare and mobilize our defense early.

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Non-Adaptive Stress

Activating stress for no reason/circumstance, or over something you cannot control.

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Fight-or-flight

Canonical stress response preparing the body for a major expenditure of energy

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Tend and Befriend

A stress response, particularly in females, involving nurturing offspring and building social connections

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Oxytocin

Hormone that promotes bonding, maternal behavior, and monogamous relationships

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Gender Bias in Research

Scientists biased by focusing on males

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Female Aggression

Can manifest as protecting young or hunting

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Shelley Taylor

UCLA psychologist who introduced the 'tend and befriend' concept as an alternative to fight-or-flight in females

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Oxytocin in Stress Response

The hormone related to tend and befriend themes

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Hormones of Fight or Flight

Sympathetic nervous system and glucocorticoids prepares the body for physical demands

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Voluntary Nervous System

The conscious part of the nervous system that controls voluntary movements like shaking hands or filling out forms.

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Autonomic Nervous System

The part of the nervous system that controls involuntary functions like blushing, gooseflesh, and organ activity.

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Biofeedback

Learning to consciously control automatic bodily functions, like lowering heart rate or repressing a burp.

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Sympathetic Nervous System

The part of the autonomic nervous system that activates during stress, emergencies, or exciting situations.

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Gooseflesh

A physical response to terror where hairs stand on end due to sympathetic nervous system activation.

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Sympathetic Nervous System Actions

Vigilance, arousal, activation, mobilization.

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Adrenaline

The sympathetic nervous system releases this hormone. It is the main hormone that activates the 'fight or flight' mechanism.

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Nerve Projections

Nerve projections that carry messages to the sweat glands and other organs.

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Selye's Stress Response Concept

Selye believed all stressors trigger the same hormonal response (glucocorticoids, epinephrine, etc.). While largely true, the stress response varies.

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Varied Stress Response

While most stressors activate both, the intensity of sympathetic and glucocorticoid responses varies based on the stressor.

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Hormonal 'Signature'

Different stressors trigger unique patterns of hormone release, creating a hormonal 'signature' specific to each stressor.

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Sympathetic vs. Glucocorticoid Response

Sympathetic activation (anxiety, vigilance) dominates, while glucocorticoid activation (depression) increases when giving up.

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Selective Hormone Release

Not all stressors cause the release of both epinephrine and norepinephrine, and not all branches of the sympathetic system release norepinephrine.

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Social Stress - Coping

Rodents that are socially subordinate and trying to cope show high sympathetic nervous system activation.

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Social Stress - Giving Up

Rodents who are socially subordinate and have given up coping tend to have a more activated glucocorticoid system.

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Tissue Sensitivity to Stress

Different tissues can have altered sensitivity to stress hormones depending on the stressor, even if hormone release profiles are identical.

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Cardiovascular Sensitivity

Damage to the cardiovascular system makes it highly reactive to stressors.

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Vagus Nerve

The parasympathetic nervous system uses this nerve to slow heart rate.

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Impaired Parasympathetic Tone

Chronic stress inhibits the parasympathetic nervous system's braking action, causing difficulty slowing down.

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Heart Rate Variability

When inhaling, the sympathetic nervous system increases the speed of your heart rate, whereas the parasympathetic nervous system decreases the speed when exhaling.

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Strong Parasympathetic Tone

Strong parasympathetic activity counteracts sympathetic activity.

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Interbeat Intervals

The time interval between successive heartbeats.

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Minimal Interbeat Variability

Minimal variability between interbeat intervals indicates difficulty activating the parasympathetic nervous system.

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Cumulative Cardiovascular Damage

Chronic stress gradually damages the cardiovascular system, increasing vulnerability.

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Myocardial Ischemia

Reduced blood flow to the heart muscle, often due to narrowed arteries.

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Angina Pectoris

Chest pain caused by reduced blood flow to the heart, a symptom of myocardial ischemia.

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Vasoconstriction

The abnormal narrowing of blood vessels, reducing blood flow.

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Vasodilation

The widening of blood vessels, increasing blood flow.

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Atherosclerosis

The progressive hardening and narrowing of the arteries due to plaque buildup.

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Acute Stress & Ischemic Heart

Myocardial ischemia resulting from a heart already weakened by chronic ischemia.

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Ambulatory Electrocardiography

Small ECG machine worn to monitor heart activity during daily life.

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"Silent" Ischemic Episodes

Ischemic episodes without chest pain, often triggered by psychological stressors.

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Study Notes

  • A stressor disrupts homeostatic balance, while the stress-response reestablishes it
  • Stressors include anticipation of events, not just current disruptions
  • Stress responses can arise from potential stressors far into the future
  • Psychological stressors, such as financial worries or public speaking, are common in humans
  • Activating the stress-response when it turns out to be real is protective but activating the stress-response for no reason leads to anxiety and paranoia
  • Stress-response is mobilized in response to physical or psychological insults, and in expectation of them

Nervous System and Stress

  • The brain communicates through nerves branching from the spine to the body's periphery
  • The voluntary nervous system allows conscious control of muscle movement
  • The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary functions like sweating
  • Biofeedback and potty training showcase some conscious alteration of autonomic functions

Autonomic Nervous System and Stress

  • The autonomic nervous system is involuntary and automatic
  • The autonomic nervous system is central to stress response
  • The sympathetic nervous system activates in response to stress; originating in the brain and impacting organs, blood vessels, and sweat glands
  • When the sympathetic nervous system activates muscles attached to hairs on the the body, gooseflesh results
  • The sympathetic nervous system mediates vigilance, arousal, activation, and mobilization, and mediates fight, flight, fright, and sex

Fight-or-Flight vs. Tend-and-Befriend

  • The stress-response prepares the body for energy expenditure - fight-or-flight response, but this is more related to males
  • Females have a different physiology of the stress-response; tend and befriend which involves taking care of her young and seeking social affiliation
  • Oxytocin is the hormone related to "tend and befriend," causing maternal imprinting, stimulating milk production and monogamous pair bonding
  • Oxytocin secretion during stress in females supports the idea that responding to stress may involve sociality

Stressors and Hormonal Signatures

  • Selye believed the same pattern of hormone secretion occurs for all stressors
  • The sympathetic nervous system and glucocorticoids play a role in the response to virtually all stressors
  • The speed and magnitudes of the sympathetic and glucocorticoid branches can vary depending on the stressor
  • The orchestration and patterning of hormone release tend to vary at least somewhat from stressor to stressor, with there being a particular hormonal "signature" for a particular stressor
  • Sympathetic arousal indicates anxiety and vigilance, while heavy glucocorticoid secretion indicates depression
  • Acute stress with a heart suffering from chronic myocardial ischemia is dangerous

Myocardial Ischemia and Stress

  • In myocardial ischemia, coronary arteries vasoconstrict instead of vasodilating
  • Vasoconstriction restricts oxygen and glucose to the heart, causing angina pectoris
  • Brief periods of hypertension cause this vasoconstrictive problem
  • Chronic myocardial ischemia from atherosclerosis makes a person vulnerable to chest pain

Cardiovascular Vulnerability and Stress

  • Ambulatory electrocardiography revealed ischemic crises occurring in at-risk individuals
  • Ischemic episodes were often "silent," without pain
  • Psychological stressors can trigger ischemic episodes
  • Cardiovascular system is very sensitive to acute stressors once damaged

Autonomic Imbalance and Stress

  • The parasympathetic nervous system activates the vagus nerve to slow the heart
  • Chronic stress shuts off the parasympathetic nervous system
  • A clinician can monitor recovery speed after a treadmill to diagnose a vagus nerve
  • Heartbeat intervals tend to be shorter during inhalation and longer during exhalation
  • Reduced variability in interbeat intervals indicates a problematic parasympathetic component
  • Minimal variability means a parasympathetic component that has trouble putting its foot on the brake
  • Minimal variability is a marker of someone who turns on the cardiovascular stress-response too often but has trouble turning it off

Heart Disease

  • Chronic stress gradually damages the cardiovascular system
  • Cardiac catastrophe often occurs during stress

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