Veterinary Medicine: History and Establishments

• Study notes on veterinary medicine are outlined below

History

• Early veterinary practice used natural remedies like herbs and plants for animal care.
• Focus was on animals essential for agriculture, trade, and war, such as horses and livestock.
• Ancient civilizations, including Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Greece, contributed foundational knowledge.
• They laid the groundwork for systematic care and pharmacology in animals.

Establishment of the First Veterinary School

• École Vétérinaire de Lyon, France, was founded by Claude Bourgelat.
• This marked the formalization of veterinary education.
• It was a response to livestock diseases like rinderpest, necessitating organized veterinary care.

19th Century - Rise of Veterinary Medicine

• Veterinary schools in Europe and the U.S. saw growing structure and organization.
• This included introduction of more systematic education in the field.
• Pharmacology became systematic, leading to increased study of drugs for animals.
• Some human medicines were tested for animal use during this period.

1928 – Discovery of Penicillin

• Alexander Fleming's discovery of penicillin revolutionized both human and veterinary medicine.
• It enabled the treatment of bacterial infections in animals.

1940s-50s – Antibiotics and Vaccines

• Introduction of antibiotics, such as tetracycline, and vaccines into veterinary care improved disease control.
• This was especially impactful in livestock management.
• Veterinary pharmacology became an established field, focusing on drug safety and therapeutic efficacy.

1970s - Specialized Veterinary Drugs

• Pharmaceutical companies began developing drugs specifically for animals, like flea treatments and vaccines.
• There was an increased focus on individualized treatment for animals with compounding of medications.
• This allowed for more precise, customized care.

21st Century – Modern Veterinary Pharmacy

• There is a strong emphasis on regulations, safety, and development of new therapies like biologics and gene therapy.
• Pharmacogenomics tailors drug treatments based on animals' genetic profiles.
• Veterinary pharmacists work closely with veterinarians to ensure safe, effective drug therapies for companion animals, livestock, and wildlife.

II. HEALTH BENEFITS OF HUMAN-ANIMAL INTERACTION

• Human-animal interactions (HAI) have a wide range of physical, mental, and emotional health benefits for humans.
• HAI fosters emotional well-being and improves physical health outcomes.
• The bond between humans and animals is a key factor in overall health.

1. Physical Benefit

• Interacting with pets reduces cortisol and increases oxytocin.
• Spending time with pets reduces stress and promotes a calm state.
• Reduced stress can improve cardiovascular health.
• Dog owners tend to have lower blood pressure and heart rates due to regular walking and increased physical activity.
• A study by the American Heart Association found dog owners have a lower risk of heart disease.
• Interaction with animals can help alleviate pain and promote faster healing, by triggering endorphins.
• Endorphins ease chronic pain or post-surgery recovery.
• Pet ownership encourages physical activity, reducing obesity and improving fitness.
• Dog ownership is associated with higher levels of daily physical activity, especially for older adults.

2. Mental Health Benefits

• Emotional Support: Pets provide valuable emotional support for individuals dealing with depression or grief.
• Research: Interacting with animals boosts serotonin and dopamine.
• Serotonin and dopamine are neurotransmitters linked to happiness.
• Therapeutic Effects: Animals offer comfort for anxiety, PTSD, and other mental health issues.
• Example: Animal-assisted therapy helps calm patients during psychiatric treatments, reducing anxiety and emotional stress.

C. Enhanced Mood and Well-being

• Feel-Good Hormones: Interacting with animals increases oxytocin, endorphins, and serotonin, enhancing mood.
• Research: Animal interactions provide mood boosts for individuals suffering from anxiety or depression.
• Cognitive Stimulation: Pet ownership can improve memory and focus, particularly in older adults with early signs of Alzheimer's or dementia.
• Therapy Animals: Encourage mental tasks, improving cognitive function and mental health.

Social Health Benefits

• Combat Loneliness: Pet ownership encourages social interaction (e.g., dog parks, walks).
• Research: People with pets tend to make more social connections through animal-related activities.

B. Support for Vulnerable Populations

• Older Adults: Pets provide companionship, reducing loneliness and depression.
• Children: Growing up with pets helps children develop empathy, responsibility, and social skills.

Emotional Regulation and Empathy

• Improved Emotional Intelligence: Interacting with animals helps develop emotional regulation and empathy.
• Example: Children learn compassion and emotional coping by caring for pets.

D. Support in Therapy and Rehabilitation

• Therapy Animals: Animals provide emotional and physical support for patients.
• Benefit: Animals help motivate patients, reduce pain perception, and foster emotional connections during rehabilitation.

4. Specific Health Benefits for Vulnerable Groups

• Therapy Animals for ASD: Help children with autism communicate, reduce anxiety, and engage socially.
• Research: Therapy animals improve emotional expression and social connection in children with ASD.

Veterans and PTSD

• Animal-Assisted Therapy for PTSD: Service dogs provide emotional support, stability, and protection.
• Studies: Veterans paired with service dogs experience reductions in symptoms like anxiety and depression.

5. How Animal-Assisted Therapy Works

• Therapy Animals: Trained animals provide comfort in hospitals and rehabilitation centers.
• Service Animals: Assist people with disabilities, (e.g., vision, mobility, PTSD).
• Emotional Support Animals (ESA): Provide comfort and companionship for those with mental health issues (e.g., anxiety, depression).

Benefits of Animal-Assisted Therapy

• Reduction in Stress: Provides comfort, calming effects, and a sense of security.
• Increased Motivation: Encourages participation in rehabilitation.
• Improved Mental Health: Helps with emotional regulation, reduces loneliness, and enhances social interaction.

III. THE EFFECT OF ANIMAL HEALTH ON HUMAN HEALTH

• Animal health affects the safety of food products consumed by humans.
• E. coli, Salmonella, and Listeria can spread through improperly managed animal products like meat, milk, and eggs.
• Risk: Contaminated food leads to foodborne illnesses in humans.

B. Antibiotic Resistance

• The overuse of antibiotics in animals contributes to antimicrobial resistance (AMR).
• Impact: Resistant bacteria can spread from animals to humans.
• The World Health Organization (WHO) and health bodies are addressing the risk of AMR on human health.

Animal Agriculture and Public Health

• Animal diseases can disrupt agricultural production, affecting food security.
• Foot-and-Mouth Disease affects cloven-hoofed animals, leading to economic losses.
• Mad Cow Disease (BSE) is a rare condition that can affect humans, leading to fatal neurodegenerative diseases.

B. Environmental and Ecosystem Health

• Impact on ecosystems: The health of animals impacts broader ecosystems, which influence human health.
• Wildlife decline in key species disrupts ecosystems, affecting food chains and pollination.
• Deforestation increases contact between wildlife and humans, raising the risk of zoonotic diseases (e.g., Ebola, SARS).

Animal Welfare and Human Emotional Health

• Healthy pets contribute to better mental health, reducing stress, anxiety, and depression.
• Benefit: A well-cared-for pet enhances the emotional bond, helping prevent loneliness and promoting emotional well-being.

B. Public Health Interventions

• Animal health programs (e.g., rabies vaccination, disease surveillance) are vital for human health.
• Public Health Initiatives: Programs aimed at preventing diseases in animals can reduce transmission risks to humans.

Disease Surveillance and Early Warning Systems

• The One Health concept emphasizes the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health.
• Benefit: Collaborative health efforts act as early warning systems for zoonotic disease outbreaks.
• Monitoring wildlife health helps identify potential risks before they escalate into major public health threats.

Veterinary Care, Public Health, and the Role of Animal Health Professionals

• Veterinarians safeguard public health by diagnosing and treating animal diseases that could affect humans.
• Focus: Disease prevention, surveillance, and managing the use of antibiotics in animals to combat AMR.

Vaccination Programs for Animals

• Vaccinating animals prevents diseases that could transmit to humans, like rabies.
• Climate change affects disease distribution and vector-borne diseases.
• Lyme Disease, Malaria, and Dengue are spreading to new regions as temperatures rise.
• Climate change brings animals into closer contact with humans, increasing zoonotic transmission risks.

IV. THE IMPACT OF ANIMAL HEALTH ON FOODBORNE DISEASES

• Salmonella, Campylobacter, and E. coli are bacterial pathogens common in livestock and poultry.
• Salmonella is found in poultry and eggs.
• Campylobacter is common in poultry, causes gastrointestinal illness.
• E. coli O157:H7 is spread through undercooked beef and can cause severe illness.
• Norovirus and Hepatitis E can be transmitted via shellfish and pork.
• Toxoplasma, Trichinella, and Taenia solium are parasitic diseases.
• Toxoplasmosis is found in pigs and cats.
• Trichinosis is from undercooked pork or wild game.
• Mycotoxins are toxins from fungi in animal feed.
• Aflatoxins can contaminate milk from cows fed contaminated feed, leading to liver damage.
• Healthy animals are less likely to harbor pathogens.
• Vaccination programs prevent disease.
• Example: brucellosis and foot-and-mouth disease.
• Biosecurity measures prevent disease outbreaks through sanitation and controlled animal movement.
• Overuse of antibiotics in animals can lead to resistance.
• MRSA and resistant Salmonella strains are linked to livestock.
• Contaminated animal feed can transfer pathogens or toxins to animals and humans.
• Example: Feed-related outbreaks of Salmonella and E. coli.
• Contamination can occur during meat processing if proper hygiene is not maintained.
• Risk: Cross-contamination between raw meat and ready-to-eat products.
• Regular monitoring helps identify and prevent outbreaks.
• Farm biosecurity programs, vaccination checks, and pathogen testing.
• Ensuring animals are fed properly and kept in clean and safe environments.
• GAPs help reduce pathogen exposure and improve overall animal health.
• Sanitary practices in slaughterhouses prevent pathogen contamination.
• Proper meat inspection, temperature control, and correct handling techniques.
• Educating the public on safe food handling, cooking temperatures, and hygiene.
• Veterinarians ensure animal health and prevent foodborne diseases.
• Surveillance and vaccination programs and ensuring sanitary practices in slaughterhouses.
• Agencies like the FDA, CDC, and WHO set and enforce safety standards.
• The international food trade increases the spread of foodborne diseases.
• Rapid responses are essential to control outbreaks linked to animal products.
• Actions: Quarantine, recalls, and public health advisories.

VI. VETERINARY MEDICINES

• ABX and Antimicrobials- Penicillin, Cephalosporins, Tetracyclines.
• Antivirals - Acyclovir, Oseltamivir.
• Antifungals -Itraconazole Griseofulvin
• Antiparasitic- Fenbendazole, Ivermectin, Pyrantel, Fipronil, Permethrin.
• Analgesics and Anti-inflammatory - NSAIDs, Opioids, Corticosteroids.
• Hormonal and Endocrine Drugs- insulin, Levothyroxine, Methimazole.
• Vaccines and Immunotherapeutic- Canine, Feline, Livestock.
• Tablets, liquids, injectable (Subcutaneous, Intramuscular, Intravenous, Topical, Inhaled.

Vaccination

• Vaccines:
  • Inactivated (Killed) stimulate but do not replicate.
  • Live Attenuated( Weakened live pathogens) replicate.
  • Subunit, Recombinant, or Conjugate (Parts of the pathogen) use components to trigger an immune response.
  • Toxoid (Inactivated bacterial toxins) neutralize toxins.
  • DNA and mRNA (Genetic material DNA/mRNA) trigger an immune response.
• Immunogenicity: the ability to provoke a robust immune response (booster shots can help)
• Vaccine Failures Caused by improper storage, incorrect dose, or compromised immune systems.

VIII. LOCAL AND INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS AND AGENCIES RELATED TO VETERINARY MEDICINAL PRODUCTS

• Regulatory bodies that ensure VMP safety, effectivness, and quality, such as : Food and Drug Administration (FDA) – USA.
• Division: Center for Veterinary Medicine (CVM).
• European Medicines Agency (EMA) – EU.
• Division: Committee for Medicinal Products for Veterinary Use (CVMP).
• Health Canada - Canada. Division: Veterinary Drugs Directorate (VDD).
• Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority (APVMA) – Australia. Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) – UK.
• Division: Veterinary Medicines Directorate (VMD).

IX. THE MANAGEMENT OF ANIMAL SOFT TISSUE INJURIES: WOUND MANAGEMENT MATERIALS

• Types of Soft Tissue Injuries (Abrasion, Laceration, Puncture Wound, Surgical Incicions,
• Treatment: Prevent infection, promote healing, control pain, prevent further injury.
• Wound Management (Topical, systemic antibodies like, Amoxicillin-clavulan ate, topical ointments, growth factors.
• Wound Materials (dressing, bandages, topical sprays, advanced management such as drawing fluid.

COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE THERAPIES IN VETERINARY MEDICINE

• What, benefits, uses of:
  • Acupuncture
  • Chiropractic
  • Herbal Medicine
  • Homeopathy