Values, Attitudes, and Beliefs

Learning Outcomes

• Values, attitudes, and beliefs should be understood in nature
• The relationship between values, attitudes, and beliefs should be understood
• The components of attitudes should be identified
• Values implicit in the meaning of work should be illustrated
• Functions of values, attitudes and beliefs are explained
• The process of changing attitudes should be discussed
• Theories of organizational and national culture should be distinguished
• The role of work-related attitudes should be recognised

Fundamental Beliefs

• Exist at the very bottom of the iceberg and play a major role in the work done
• Core convictions that underpin understanding of the world
• Shapes values, perceptions, and behaviours
• Can be verified as either true or false
• Consist of evaluative beliefs with conclusions as to whether something is good or bad
• Consist of prescriptive beliefs which are the normative guidelines dictating what behaviors/actions are expected

Sproull's Beliefs

• Phenomenological beliefs relate to the individual’s beliefs about the nature of people
• Causal beliefs refer to the cause and effect relationships seen between various phenomena

Values

• Values shape what we think about various things
• Values shape how we behave towards the organisation as a whole
• Values are just as important in the workplace
• An organised set of preferential standards are used in decision making
• These standards are used in selections of objects and actions
• Used for resolving conflicts
• Used for invoking social sanctions
• Used for coping with needs

Values Derivation

• Values are derived from family upbringing and early socialisation
• Cultural upbringing shapes values
• Cultural norms related to education, work and play shape values
• Professional and legal codes

Approaches to Understanding Individual Values

• Rokeach categorized values into terminal (end goals, happiness/success) and instrumental values (means to achieve goals like honesty/hard work)
• Spranger identifies six types of value orientations shaping behaviour
• Theoretical value orientation is truth-seeking
• Economic value orientation focuses on practicality
• Aesthetic value orientation focuses on beauty and form
• Social value orientation focuses on compassion
• Political value orientation focuses on power
• Religious value orientation focuses on spiritual meaning
• Schwartz proposes values group into ten categories across cultures
• Self-direction
• Benevolence
• Security

Schwartz’s Value Orientations

• Power as a value orientation involves the pursuit of social status, control and dominance over people and resources
• Achievement focuses on personal success through competence, ambition, and recognition
• Hedonism prioritises pleasure, enjoyment, and self-indulgence
• Stimulation values excitement, novelty, and risk-taking
• Self-direction emphasises independence, creativity, and freedom to choose one's own path
• Benevolence focuses on promoting the well-being and welfare of others through kindness and help
• Tradition emphasizes respect for cultural customs, religious practices and established norms
• Conformity involves adhering to social expectations, rules, and self-discipline to avoid disrupting social order
• Security prioritizes safety, stability, and protection from threats to ensure a secure environment
• Universalism values understanding, tolerance, and protection for all people and nature by emphasizing equality and justice
• Values are beliefs tied to emotion, not objective/cold ideas
• Values are a motivational construct
• Values are broader principles that apply across different actions; guide behaviour

Schwartz’s Value

• Values guide the selection of actions, policies, people, and events
• Values are ordered by importance relative to one another

Norms

• Shared ideas of proper or expected behaviour
• Types of norms include folkways, laws, and mores

Attitudes

• An evaluative aspect reflects how we feel (positive/negative)
• Attitudes target the object/issue towards which it is directed
• Attitudes show preference to act towards a target based on the evaluation
• Attitudes influence how we think, feel, and behave toward it
• Values are broad guiding principles with attitudes that are specific and context-dependent

The Meaning of Work

• Relates to the value that an individual attaches to working in general
• Work centrality refers to the degree to which work is important
• Work means different things to different people
• Job satisfaction is the level of contentment/fulfillment felt in the job based on factors like work environment

Organisational Commitment

• An employee feels psychological attachment towards their organisation
• A positive attitude at work leads to satisfaction, enhanced productivity, teamwork, increased motivation, and a supportive environment

Change at the Individual Level

• Cognitive dissonance causes an imbalance
• Consistency should be found between beliefs and behaviour
• Changing behaviour, seeking justification, playing down importance, and adding new cognitions are important

Cultural Models

• Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions identifies collectivism and power distance
• Trompenaars' Model focuses examines how cultures approach rules, relationships and time
• Harrison/Huntington Model emphasizes the role of social contexts
• Schwartz's Value Survey highlights behaviour
• Measuring attitudes is challenging because it is internal and subjective

Hofstede's Cultural Dimension Theory

• Power distance (High vs Low)
• Individualism (vs Collectivism)
• Masculinity (vs Feminity)
• Uncertainty avoidance (High vs Low)
• Long-term orientation (vs short-term)

Dimensions of Culture: Trompernaar and Hampden-Turner

• Particularism
• Collectivism
• Affective
• Ascription
• Diffuse
• Synchronic
• Outer-Directed

Hofstede & Waisfisz Organisational Culture

• The model identifies six dimensions that shape workplace culture which are means vs goal-oriented, internally vs externally driven, easygoing vs strict discipline, local vs professional identity, open vs closed system, and employee vs work-oriented

Culture

• Organizations assess and align their culture with strategic goals
• This model has been renamed Bob’s model

Identity

• The workplace relates to the self-image or mental model that a person has of him or herself and includes aspects of self-esteem and individuality

Identity Levels

• Personal Identity - A person's unique traits, beliefs, and character
• Relational Identity - How individuals define themselves based on relationships
• Collective Identity - A sense of belonging to a larger group
• Material Identity - Identity shaped by possessions