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Questions and Answers
What is the primary purpose of site-directed mutagenesis in vaccine development?
What is the primary purpose of site-directed mutagenesis in vaccine development?
Which method is NOT typically used to inactivate microorganisms for killed vaccines?
Which method is NOT typically used to inactivate microorganisms for killed vaccines?
How do toxoid vaccines induce an immune response?
How do toxoid vaccines induce an immune response?
What is the role of bacterial polysaccharides in vaccine development?
What is the role of bacterial polysaccharides in vaccine development?
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In recombinant vaccines, what is produced through genetic engineering?
In recombinant vaccines, what is produced through genetic engineering?
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What was the key observation that led Edward Jenner to develop the smallpox vaccine?
What was the key observation that led Edward Jenner to develop the smallpox vaccine?
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Which of the following best defines passive immunity?
Which of the following best defines passive immunity?
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What is a major disadvantage of passive immunity?
What is a major disadvantage of passive immunity?
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What historical event marked the beginning of modern vaccination?
What historical event marked the beginning of modern vaccination?
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During which condition is passive immunity particularly necessary?
During which condition is passive immunity particularly necessary?
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What term is derived from the Latin word for cow and is associated with vaccination?
What term is derived from the Latin word for cow and is associated with vaccination?
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Which of the following infections is passive immunity typically administered for in humans?
Which of the following infections is passive immunity typically administered for in humans?
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What role do naive T and B cells play in vaccination?
What role do naive T and B cells play in vaccination?
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What is primarily harvested from the serum of hyperimmunized animals for immunizations?
What is primarily harvested from the serum of hyperimmunized animals for immunizations?
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What type of vaccines is most likely to induce a long-lasting immune response?
What type of vaccines is most likely to induce a long-lasting immune response?
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What is a major consideration when selecting a vaccine to induce active immunity?
What is a major consideration when selecting a vaccine to induce active immunity?
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Which method is NOT used to achieve the attenuation of a pathogen?
Which method is NOT used to achieve the attenuation of a pathogen?
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Which type of vaccination method involves the use of genetically modified organisms?
Which type of vaccination method involves the use of genetically modified organisms?
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How do live-attenuated vaccines primarily provide long-term immunity?
How do live-attenuated vaccines primarily provide long-term immunity?
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What is a characteristic feature of subunit/component vaccines?
What is a characteristic feature of subunit/component vaccines?
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Which characteristic is NOT typical of inactivated vaccines?
Which characteristic is NOT typical of inactivated vaccines?
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What is the first step in the process of creating naked DNA vaccines?
What is the first step in the process of creating naked DNA vaccines?
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How do adjuvants enhance immune responses to antigens?
How do adjuvants enhance immune responses to antigens?
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What role does the recombinant virus play in vector vaccines?
What role does the recombinant virus play in vector vaccines?
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Which of the following is NOT a commonly used adjuvant?
Which of the following is NOT a commonly used adjuvant?
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What is the main purpose of DIVA vaccines?
What is the main purpose of DIVA vaccines?
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How do immune stimulating complexes (ISCOMs) function as adjuvants?
How do immune stimulating complexes (ISCOMs) function as adjuvants?
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What is the effect of adding an adjuvant that mimics PAMPs or DAMPs in vaccines?
What is the effect of adding an adjuvant that mimics PAMPs or DAMPs in vaccines?
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Which of the following describes antigen-depot formation as a mechanism of adjuvants?
Which of the following describes antigen-depot formation as a mechanism of adjuvants?
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What is the main characteristic of killed vaccines?
What is the main characteristic of killed vaccines?
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What role do polysaccharides play in bacterial component vaccines?
What role do polysaccharides play in bacterial component vaccines?
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How do toxoid vaccines stimulate an immune response?
How do toxoid vaccines stimulate an immune response?
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What distinguishes recombinant vaccines from other vaccine types?
What distinguishes recombinant vaccines from other vaccine types?
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What is a key benefit of using genetic engineering in vaccine development?
What is a key benefit of using genetic engineering in vaccine development?
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What is the primary reason for administering passive immunity?
What is the primary reason for administering passive immunity?
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Which historical figure is credited with the development of the smallpox vaccine?
Which historical figure is credited with the development of the smallpox vaccine?
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Which of the following infections typically requires passive immunity in humans?
Which of the following infections typically requires passive immunity in humans?
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What is the significance of maternal antibodies in neonatal immunity?
What is the significance of maternal antibodies in neonatal immunity?
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What commonly triggers the production of hyperimmune serum?
What commonly triggers the production of hyperimmune serum?
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How did Edward Jenner contribute to the field of immunology?
How did Edward Jenner contribute to the field of immunology?
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What is the Latin origin of the term 'vaccination'?
What is the Latin origin of the term 'vaccination'?
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What is the main purpose of cleaving immunoglobulins to Fab´2?
What is the main purpose of cleaving immunoglobulins to Fab´2?
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Which type of immune response is primarily induced by vaccines to provide long-term immunity?
Which type of immune response is primarily induced by vaccines to provide long-term immunity?
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What is an essential factor when selecting a vaccine to ensure it provides long-term protection?
What is an essential factor when selecting a vaccine to ensure it provides long-term protection?
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How do live-attenuated vaccines achieve their effectiveness?
How do live-attenuated vaccines achieve their effectiveness?
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What is the process of passaging in relation to vaccine development?
What is the process of passaging in relation to vaccine development?
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What type of vaccines are primarily effective due to the efficient presentation of antigenic epitopes?
What type of vaccines are primarily effective due to the efficient presentation of antigenic epitopes?
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Which of the following is a major advantage of live-attenuated vaccines over inactivated vaccines?
Which of the following is a major advantage of live-attenuated vaccines over inactivated vaccines?
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What characteristic of inactivated vaccines is key in their development?
What characteristic of inactivated vaccines is key in their development?
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What are the benefits of using adjuvants in vaccination?
What are the benefits of using adjuvants in vaccination?
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How do vector vaccines elicit an immune response?
How do vector vaccines elicit an immune response?
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What is the primary function of DIVA vaccines?
What is the primary function of DIVA vaccines?
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Which mechanism describes antigen-depot formation as related to adjuvants?
Which mechanism describes antigen-depot formation as related to adjuvants?
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What type of vector is mostly used in vector vaccines?
What type of vector is mostly used in vector vaccines?
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Which of the following correctly describes the role of dendritic cells in vaccine response?
Which of the following correctly describes the role of dendritic cells in vaccine response?
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Which of the following substances is commonly used as an adjuvant?
Which of the following substances is commonly used as an adjuvant?
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What is the first step in creating naked DNA vaccines?
What is the first step in creating naked DNA vaccines?
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Study Notes
Vaccination
- Vaccination is not for financial gain by veterinarians.
- Young animals of most species are vulnerable to infectious diseases.
- They lack memory lymphocytes.
- Infectious diseases cause significant mortality, even in developed countries.
- Immunizations help prevent deaths caused by infectious diseases.
- Vaccination is an important medical decision based on knowledge of the presence of an infectious agent in the animal herd (not every animal requires a vaccine).
History of Vaccination
- Edward Jenner pioneered modern vaccination in 1796, targeting smallpox.
- Jenner observed that milkmaids were rarely affected by smallpox.
- He theorized cowpox conferred immunity against smallpox.
- Jenner collected cowpox pus and inoculated a boy (James Phipps).
- Phipps survived subsequent smallpox exposure.
- "Vaccination" was derived from the Latin word "vaccus," meaning cow.
Essentials of Useful Vaccines
- Safe vaccines do not cause illness or mortality in most recipients; side effects are minimal.
- Protective vaccines prevent or lessen illness caused by pathogens.
- Long-lasting effects of vaccines confer sustained resistance against pathogens.
- Vaccines induce antibodies that respond to specific antigens, promoting sustained defense.
- Vaccines stimulate cell-mediated and humoral immunity, targeting intracellular pathogens, notably viruses.
- Vaccines are generally inexpensive, stable, and easily administered.
Types of Immunity
-
Passive Immunity:
- Transfer of maternal antibodies to newborns.
- Administration of serum globulin fraction (antiserum or pure antibodies processed via ethanol precipitation).
When is Passive Immunity Necessary?
- Primary or secondary immunodeficiencies.
- Cases where active immunity is impossible or insufficient.
- Infections requiring rapid antibody transfer for protection (e.g., tetanus prevention in unvaccinated individuals).
Disadvantages of Passive Immunity
- Elevated risk of hypersensitivity types I and III.
- Temporary immunity; does not generate lasting memory.
How is Hyperimmune Serum Produced?
- Horses, goats, or sheep are immunized.
- Serum is collected from hyperimmunized animals.
- Immunoglobulins are extracted from the serum.
- Processing (e.g., cleavage to Fab'2) prevents immunogenicity.
Active Immunity
- Acquired through infection with a pathogen.
- Vaccination: attenuated, inactivated, subunit, recombinant vaccines.
- Active immunity aims to provide long-term immunity.
- T and B cells generate a memory response for sustained protection.
Considerations for Selecting a Vaccine
- Measured immune responses do not always correlate with protective efficacy.
- Vaccines must induce immunological memory for long-term protection.
Types of Vaccines
- Live-attenuated vaccines;
- Heat-killed/inactivated vaccines;
- Subunit/component vaccines;
- Toxoid vaccines;
- Conjugate vaccines;
- Recombinant vaccines;
- Naked DNA vaccines;
- Vector vaccines
Live-Attenuated Vaccines
- Live pathogens, non- or less virulent, are employed as vaccines.
- Replication enhances antigen quantity and improves immune response.
- Antigenic epitopes are efficiently presented to T and B cells.
How is Attenuation Achieved?
-
Passage:
- Culturing virulent pathogens in unsuitable conditions reduces virulence and infectiousness (canine parvovirus; viral attenuation by lowering temperature).
-
Genetic Engineering:
- Modifying virulence genes through site-directed mutagenesis eliminates virulence factors.
Killed Vaccines
- Inactivated viruses, bacteria, etc.
- These agents are incapable of causing disease.
- Immunogenicity is retained.
- Methods for inactivation/killing include heat, chemicals, and radiation.
Subunit or Component Vaccines
- Purified antigens of pathogens.
- Toxoids: inactivated toxin proteins that trigger neutralizing antibodies. (e.g., tetanus, diphtheria).
Bacterial Polysaccharides
- Polysaccharide coatings on bacterial cell surfaces.
- Pathogenicity depends on phagocytosis inhibition.
- Antibodies can neutralize bacteria by enhancing neutrophil and macrophage phagocytosis.
Recombinant Vaccines
- Cloning and expression of immunogenic proteins in prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells generate antigens.
- Viral proteins are common examples.
Naked DNA Vaccines
- Inserting the gene for immunogenic proteins from a pathogen into a plasmid vector.
- Injection of this plasmid DNA into animals leads to protein synthesis.
- Dendritic cells present the antigen to lymphocytes triggering a robust immune response.
Vector Vaccines
- Cloning and insertion of an immunogenic protein gene into a viral vector (e.g., vaccinia virus or adenovirus).
- Vector, carrying the inserted gene, is delivered to animals.
- Recombinant viral infection generates an immune response without causing disease.
Adverse Consequences of Vaccination
- Vaccine reactions can include errors in manufacture or administration, contamination, toxicity, hypersensitivity, neurological reactions, and foreign body reactions.
- Additional adverse reactions include inflammation, fever, pain, and potentially fatal outcomes like immunosupression and clinical disease in animals.
Ten Basic Principles of Vaccination
- Vaccination is a medical decision based on risk, not every animal requires every vaccine.
- Core vaccines address common, harmful diseases; non-core vaccines target diseases with risk-benefit considerations.
- Vaccines should be given to most animals within a population to generate herd immunity.
- Maternal antibodies (MDA) can interfere with vaccination in young animals, requiring booster vaccinations.
- Adult animals require immunization according to vaccine duration.
- Pregnant animals may be vaccinated when supported by data.
- Ill or immunosuppressed animals should not be vaccinated.
- Veterinarians should decide appropriate vaccines for individual cases.
- Vaccination data sheets should be understood.
- Vaccination documentation should be maintained.
DIVA vaccines (Marker vaccines)
- Diagnosis of infections based on serum antibodies.
- Distinguish naturally induced immune responses from those triggered by vaccination.
Adjuvants
- Some antigens require adjuvants to enhance immunogenicity and trigger a more robust immune response.
- Adjuvants facilitate the immune response to antigens.
Commonly Used Adjuvants
- Liposomes;
- Microspheres;
- Immune-stimulating complexes;
- Minerals (aluminum salts);
- Oil-in-water or water-in-oil emulsions;
- PRR agonists.
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Description
Test your knowledge on vaccine development and immunology with this quiz. Explore various types of vaccines, their mechanisms, and historical developments in vaccination. Perfect for students and enthusiasts in the field of microbiology and immunology.