13.2 Vaccines
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary purpose of site-directed mutagenesis in vaccine development?

  • To remove genes responsible for virulence (correct)
  • To enhance pathogen replication
  • To create live attenuated vaccines
  • To increase the virulence of pathogens
  • Which method is NOT typically used to inactivate microorganisms for killed vaccines?

  • Selective breeding (correct)
  • Chemicals
  • Radiation
  • Heat
  • How do toxoid vaccines induce an immune response?

  • By causing direct cellular damage
  • By replicating pathogens inside the body
  • By producing live pathogens
  • By inducing neutralizing antibodies against inactivated toxins (correct)
  • What is the role of bacterial polysaccharides in vaccine development?

    <p>They prevent phagocytosis by immune cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In recombinant vaccines, what is produced through genetic engineering?

    <p>Immunogenic proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the key observation that led Edward Jenner to develop the smallpox vaccine?

    <p>Milkmaids rarely contracted smallpox.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best defines passive immunity?

    <p>Immunity obtained by maternal antibodies or antiserum.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a major disadvantage of passive immunity?

    <p>It may lead to hypersensitivity reactions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What historical event marked the beginning of modern vaccination?

    <p>The introduction of cowpox to treat smallpox.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which condition is passive immunity particularly necessary?

    <p>Primary or secondary immunodeficiency.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term is derived from the Latin word for cow and is associated with vaccination?

    <p>Vaccus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following infections is passive immunity typically administered for in humans?

    <p>Diphtheria.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do naive T and B cells play in vaccination?

    <p>They are crucial for forming immunity memory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is primarily harvested from the serum of hyperimmunized animals for immunizations?

    <p>Immunoglobulins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of vaccines is most likely to induce a long-lasting immune response?

    <p>Live-attenuated vaccines</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a major consideration when selecting a vaccine to induce active immunity?

    <p>Induction of immunological memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which method is NOT used to achieve the attenuation of a pathogen?

    <p>Heating to destroy all proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of vaccination method involves the use of genetically modified organisms?

    <p>Naked DNA vaccines</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do live-attenuated vaccines primarily provide long-term immunity?

    <p>By replicating inside the human body</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic feature of subunit/component vaccines?

    <p>They include only specific parts of the pathogen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic is NOT typical of inactivated vaccines?

    <p>They may cause disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the first step in the process of creating naked DNA vaccines?

    <p>Identifying the gene encoding the immunogenic proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do adjuvants enhance immune responses to antigens?

    <p>By facilitating or enhancing immune response to the antigen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the recombinant virus play in vector vaccines?

    <p>It carries a non-infectious immunogenic protein</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a commonly used adjuvant?

    <p>Petroleum jelly</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main purpose of DIVA vaccines?

    <p>To differentiate vaccinated from naturally infected animals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do immune stimulating complexes (ISCOMs) function as adjuvants?

    <p>They enhance recognition by antigen-presenting cells (APCs)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of adding an adjuvant that mimics PAMPs or DAMPs in vaccines?

    <p>It enhances immune stimulation by activating APCs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes antigen-depot formation as a mechanism of adjuvants?

    <p>Antigens are slowly released into the intravascular tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main characteristic of killed vaccines?

    <p>They are made from inactivated viruses or dead bacteria.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do polysaccharides play in bacterial component vaccines?

    <p>They enable efficient phagocytosis by opsonization.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do toxoid vaccines stimulate an immune response?

    <p>By inactivating toxins while retaining their ability to provoke an immune response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes recombinant vaccines from other vaccine types?

    <p>They use cloned genes to express immunogenic proteins.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key benefit of using genetic engineering in vaccine development?

    <p>It allows for the production of safer and more effective vaccines.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for administering passive immunity?

    <p>To provide immediate protection during an infection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which historical figure is credited with the development of the smallpox vaccine?

    <p>Edward Jenner</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following infections typically requires passive immunity in humans?

    <p>Diphtheria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of maternal antibodies in neonatal immunity?

    <p>They offer immediate but temporary immunity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What commonly triggers the production of hyperimmune serum?

    <p>Deliberate immunization with a pathogen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did Edward Jenner contribute to the field of immunology?

    <p>He introduced the concept of vaccination through cowpox.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Latin origin of the term 'vaccination'?

    <p>Vacca - cow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main purpose of cleaving immunoglobulins to Fab´2?

    <p>To reduce their immunogenicity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of immune response is primarily induced by vaccines to provide long-term immunity?

    <p>Cellular immune response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an essential factor when selecting a vaccine to ensure it provides long-term protection?

    <p>If the vaccine induces immunological memory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do live-attenuated vaccines achieve their effectiveness?

    <p>By replicating a non-virulent form of the pathogen.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process of passaging in relation to vaccine development?

    <p>Culturing pathogens in conditions that reduce virulence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of vaccines are primarily effective due to the efficient presentation of antigenic epitopes?

    <p>Live-attenuated vaccines.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a major advantage of live-attenuated vaccines over inactivated vaccines?

    <p>Ability to generate a stronger immune response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic of inactivated vaccines is key in their development?

    <p>They utilize heat-killed or chemically inactivated agents.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the benefits of using adjuvants in vaccination?

    <p>They enhance the immunogenicity of certain antigens.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do vector vaccines elicit an immune response?

    <p>They use a virus vector to deliver immunogenic proteins.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of DIVA vaccines?

    <p>To differentiate between vaccinated and naturally infected animals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which mechanism describes antigen-depot formation as related to adjuvants?

    <p>Slowly dissipating into intravascular tissue.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of vector is mostly used in vector vaccines?

    <p>Virus vector.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following correctly describes the role of dendritic cells in vaccine response?

    <p>They present antigen to lymphocytes, triggering an immune response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following substances is commonly used as an adjuvant?

    <p>Alum (aluminum salts).</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the first step in creating naked DNA vaccines?

    <p>Cloning the gene encoding immunogenic proteins.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Vaccination

    • Vaccination is not for financial gain by veterinarians.
    • Young animals of most species are vulnerable to infectious diseases.
    • They lack memory lymphocytes.
    • Infectious diseases cause significant mortality, even in developed countries.
    • Immunizations help prevent deaths caused by infectious diseases.
    • Vaccination is an important medical decision based on knowledge of the presence of an infectious agent in the animal herd (not every animal requires a vaccine).

    History of Vaccination

    • Edward Jenner pioneered modern vaccination in 1796, targeting smallpox.
    • Jenner observed that milkmaids were rarely affected by smallpox.
    • He theorized cowpox conferred immunity against smallpox.
    • Jenner collected cowpox pus and inoculated a boy (James Phipps).
    • Phipps survived subsequent smallpox exposure.
    • "Vaccination" was derived from the Latin word "vaccus," meaning cow.

    Essentials of Useful Vaccines

    • Safe vaccines do not cause illness or mortality in most recipients; side effects are minimal.
    • Protective vaccines prevent or lessen illness caused by pathogens.
    • Long-lasting effects of vaccines confer sustained resistance against pathogens.
    • Vaccines induce antibodies that respond to specific antigens, promoting sustained defense.
    • Vaccines stimulate cell-mediated and humoral immunity, targeting intracellular pathogens, notably viruses.
    • Vaccines are generally inexpensive, stable, and easily administered.

    Types of Immunity

    • Passive Immunity:
      • Transfer of maternal antibodies to newborns.
      • Administration of serum globulin fraction (antiserum or pure antibodies processed via ethanol precipitation).

    When is Passive Immunity Necessary?

    • Primary or secondary immunodeficiencies.
    • Cases where active immunity is impossible or insufficient.
    • Infections requiring rapid antibody transfer for protection (e.g., tetanus prevention in unvaccinated individuals).

    Disadvantages of Passive Immunity

    • Elevated risk of hypersensitivity types I and III.
    • Temporary immunity; does not generate lasting memory.

    How is Hyperimmune Serum Produced?

    • Horses, goats, or sheep are immunized.
    • Serum is collected from hyperimmunized animals.
    • Immunoglobulins are extracted from the serum.
    • Processing (e.g., cleavage to Fab'2) prevents immunogenicity.

    Active Immunity

    • Acquired through infection with a pathogen.
    • Vaccination: attenuated, inactivated, subunit, recombinant vaccines.
    • Active immunity aims to provide long-term immunity.
    • T and B cells generate a memory response for sustained protection.

    Considerations for Selecting a Vaccine

    • Measured immune responses do not always correlate with protective efficacy.
    • Vaccines must induce immunological memory for long-term protection.

    Types of Vaccines

    • Live-attenuated vaccines;
    • Heat-killed/inactivated vaccines;
    • Subunit/component vaccines;
    • Toxoid vaccines;
    • Conjugate vaccines;
    • Recombinant vaccines;
    • Naked DNA vaccines;
    • Vector vaccines

    Live-Attenuated Vaccines

    • Live pathogens, non- or less virulent, are employed as vaccines.
    • Replication enhances antigen quantity and improves immune response.
    • Antigenic epitopes are efficiently presented to T and B cells.

    How is Attenuation Achieved?

    • Passage:
      • Culturing virulent pathogens in unsuitable conditions reduces virulence and infectiousness (canine parvovirus; viral attenuation by lowering temperature).
    • Genetic Engineering:
      • Modifying virulence genes through site-directed mutagenesis eliminates virulence factors.

    Killed Vaccines

    • Inactivated viruses, bacteria, etc.
    • These agents are incapable of causing disease.
    • Immunogenicity is retained.
    • Methods for inactivation/killing include heat, chemicals, and radiation.

    Subunit or Component Vaccines

    • Purified antigens of pathogens.
    • Toxoids: inactivated toxin proteins that trigger neutralizing antibodies. (e.g., tetanus, diphtheria).

    Bacterial Polysaccharides

    • Polysaccharide coatings on bacterial cell surfaces.
    • Pathogenicity depends on phagocytosis inhibition.
    • Antibodies can neutralize bacteria by enhancing neutrophil and macrophage phagocytosis.

    Recombinant Vaccines

    • Cloning and expression of immunogenic proteins in prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells generate antigens.
    • Viral proteins are common examples.

    Naked DNA Vaccines

    • Inserting the gene for immunogenic proteins from a pathogen into a plasmid vector.
    • Injection of this plasmid DNA into animals leads to protein synthesis.
    • Dendritic cells present the antigen to lymphocytes triggering a robust immune response.

    Vector Vaccines

    • Cloning and insertion of an immunogenic protein gene into a viral vector (e.g., vaccinia virus or adenovirus).
    • Vector, carrying the inserted gene, is delivered to animals.
    • Recombinant viral infection generates an immune response without causing disease.

    Adverse Consequences of Vaccination

    • Vaccine reactions can include errors in manufacture or administration, contamination, toxicity, hypersensitivity, neurological reactions, and foreign body reactions.
    • Additional adverse reactions include inflammation, fever, pain, and potentially fatal outcomes like immunosupression and clinical disease in animals.

    Ten Basic Principles of Vaccination

    • Vaccination is a medical decision based on risk, not every animal requires every vaccine.
    • Core vaccines address common, harmful diseases; non-core vaccines target diseases with risk-benefit considerations.
    • Vaccines should be given to most animals within a population to generate herd immunity.
    • Maternal antibodies (MDA) can interfere with vaccination in young animals, requiring booster vaccinations.
    • Adult animals require immunization according to vaccine duration.
    • Pregnant animals may be vaccinated when supported by data.
    • Ill or immunosuppressed animals should not be vaccinated.
    • Veterinarians should decide appropriate vaccines for individual cases.
    • Vaccination data sheets should be understood.
    • Vaccination documentation should be maintained.

    DIVA vaccines (Marker vaccines)

    • Diagnosis of infections based on serum antibodies.
    • Distinguish naturally induced immune responses from those triggered by vaccination.

    Adjuvants

    • Some antigens require adjuvants to enhance immunogenicity and trigger a more robust immune response.
    • Adjuvants facilitate the immune response to antigens.

    Commonly Used Adjuvants

    • Liposomes;
    • Microspheres;
    • Immune-stimulating complexes;
    • Minerals (aluminum salts);
    • Oil-in-water or water-in-oil emulsions;
    • PRR agonists.

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