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Questions and Answers
Which of the following components is NOT included in a vaccine?
Which of the following components is NOT included in a vaccine?
Adjuvants are added to vaccines to reduce the immune response.
Adjuvants are added to vaccines to reduce the immune response.
False
What process is used to identify specific antigens or antibodies in vitro?
What process is used to identify specific antigens or antibodies in vitro?
Immunoassay
Antigens stimulate a protective immune response against _______.
Antigens stimulate a protective immune response against _______.
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Match the following terms with their definitions:
Match the following terms with their definitions:
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What is the purpose of stabilizers in vaccines?
What is the purpose of stabilizers in vaccines?
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Cytokines play a crucial role in enhancing the immune response.
Cytokines play a crucial role in enhancing the immune response.
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The technique that measures the interaction of antigen and antibody is known as _______.
The technique that measures the interaction of antigen and antibody is known as _______.
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Which type of vaccine is made using living organisms capable of normal infection and replication?
Which type of vaccine is made using living organisms capable of normal infection and replication?
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Attenuated vaccines can revert to their original virulence.
Attenuated vaccines can revert to their original virulence.
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What is the primary method of action for DNA/RNA vaccines?
What is the primary method of action for DNA/RNA vaccines?
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Extract vaccines are composed of materials isolated from ______________.
Extract vaccines are composed of materials isolated from ______________.
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Match the following types of vaccines with their characteristics:
Match the following types of vaccines with their characteristics:
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Which type of vaccine is least likely to cause subclinical or mild symptoms?
Which type of vaccine is least likely to cause subclinical or mild symptoms?
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All killed vaccines guarantee that all organisms in the treatment are dead.
All killed vaccines guarantee that all organisms in the treatment are dead.
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What ability do microbes have that allows them to evade the immune system?
What ability do microbes have that allows them to evade the immune system?
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What is the primary purpose of immunization?
What is the primary purpose of immunization?
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Herd immunity provides protection only to individuals who are immune.
Herd immunity provides protection only to individuals who are immune.
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What is a vaccine?
What is a vaccine?
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The route of administration that uses a needle to inject the vaccine into the muscle mass is called __________.
The route of administration that uses a needle to inject the vaccine into the muscle mass is called __________.
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Match the type of vaccine administration to its description:
Match the type of vaccine administration to its description:
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Which characteristic is NOT essential for vaccines?
Which characteristic is NOT essential for vaccines?
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The only vaccine administered through an intradermal route is BCG.
The only vaccine administered through an intradermal route is BCG.
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What is immunological memory?
What is immunological memory?
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What is the term for the highest dilution of serum that still causes agglutination?
What is the term for the highest dilution of serum that still causes agglutination?
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The antibody must be bivalent while the antigen can only be bivalent to form an Ag-Ab lattice.
The antibody must be bivalent while the antigen can only be bivalent to form an Ag-Ab lattice.
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What is the purpose of Ouchterlony Double Immuno-diffusion?
What is the purpose of Ouchterlony Double Immuno-diffusion?
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In radial immuno-diffusion, antigen is added to the wells cut on the surface of the __________.
In radial immuno-diffusion, antigen is added to the wells cut on the surface of the __________.
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What shape will the precipitate form if two adjacent antigens are identical in the Ouchterlony Double Immuno-diffusion?
What shape will the precipitate form if two adjacent antigens are identical in the Ouchterlony Double Immuno-diffusion?
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Match the immunoassay technique with its description:
Match the immunoassay technique with its description:
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Western Blotting involves the direct visualization of proteins in a sample.
Western Blotting involves the direct visualization of proteins in a sample.
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In Western Blotting, proteins are separated on __________ before being transferred to a membrane.
In Western Blotting, proteins are separated on __________ before being transferred to a membrane.
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What is the primary purpose of adding a chromogenic substrate in an ELISA?
What is the primary purpose of adding a chromogenic substrate in an ELISA?
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Sandwich ELISA is primarily used to detect or measure antigen levels.
Sandwich ELISA is primarily used to detect or measure antigen levels.
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What does the term 'chromogenic substrate' refer to?
What does the term 'chromogenic substrate' refer to?
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In indirect ELISA, the _____ antibody (Ab2) is enzyme-conjugated to detect the presence of the primary antibody.
In indirect ELISA, the _____ antibody (Ab2) is enzyme-conjugated to detect the presence of the primary antibody.
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Match the ELISA techniques with their primary function:
Match the ELISA techniques with their primary function:
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Which of the following is NOT an advantage of the ELISA technique?
Which of the following is NOT an advantage of the ELISA technique?
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The competitive ELISA method allows for the quantification of antigens directly.
The competitive ELISA method allows for the quantification of antigens directly.
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What type of molecules can ELISA be modified to measure apart from antibodies?
What type of molecules can ELISA be modified to measure apart from antibodies?
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Which of the following is a commonly used fluorescent dye?
Which of the following is a commonly used fluorescent dye?
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Fluorescent dyes only show up under visible light.
Fluorescent dyes only show up under visible light.
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What is one benefit of using fluorescently tagged antibodies?
What is one benefit of using fluorescently tagged antibodies?
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Monoclonal antibodies are produced using _____ techniques.
Monoclonal antibodies are produced using _____ techniques.
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What process is used to produce polyclonal antibodies?
What process is used to produce polyclonal antibodies?
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Flow cytometry counts whole cells by using a light beam.
Flow cytometry counts whole cells by using a light beam.
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What does the term 'polyclonal antibody response' refer to?
What does the term 'polyclonal antibody response' refer to?
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Study Notes
Experimental Systems and Methods in Immunology
- This chapter focuses on the experimental design and methods used in immunology research.
Immunization and Vaccines
- Immunization is the process where a person becomes immune or resistant to an infectious disease, typically through vaccination.
- Epidemiology studies the distribution and determinants of health-related states and events in populations. This includes the frequency, pattern, causes, and risk factors of health problems. Immunization plays a key role in controlling infectious diseases.
Why Immunization is Important
- Vaccination prevents numerous infectious diseases, saving lives and reducing the burden on healthcare systems.
- Diseases like rabies and historical epidemics highlight the devastating consequences of preventable illnesses.
Herd Immunity
- Herd immunity is indirect protection from an infectious disease when a large portion of a population has immunity to that disease.
- This percentage protects those who cannot be vaccinated by limiting the spread of infection.
How Does Herd Immunity Work?
- A high percentage of vaccinated individuals in a population helps contain the virus, thus providing protection for the unvaccinated.
- The diagram shows the proportion of immune, vulnerable, and infected individuals in a population.
Immunological Memory
- The human immune system creates memory from previous infections or vaccinations.
- This memory allows a faster and stronger response to subsequent exposure to the same agent.
- The diagram depicts primary and secondary antibody responses over time.
Characteristics of Vaccines
- Effective vaccines provide significant protection against the targeted pathogen without severe side effects.
- Long-lasting immunity is a key characteristic.
- The vaccine needs to induce a neutralizing antibody response to minimize re-infection. Also, it needs to be economical and stable to maintain effectiveness during storage and transport.
Route of Administration
- Vaccines are administered through various routes to reach the necessary immune response. These include intramuscular (IM), subcutaneous (SC), intradermal (ID), oral, and intranasal spray routes.
- Some vaccines use a specific route to maximize their effectiveness, avoiding adverse effects, and minimizing treatment discomfort or complications.
Factors Affecting the Immune Response
- Several factors can influence the effectiveness of immunity, including intrinsic host factors (like genetics, age, and comorbidities) perinatal factors (like maternal antibodies, gestational age, and maternal infections), extrinsic factors (like infections, environmental toxins, socioeconomic factors), nutritional factors, environmental factors, vaccine factors (like vaccine type, adjuvant, dose), and administration factors, including vaccination schedule and site.
Types of Vaccines
- Vaccines can be categorized into several types based on their composition and mechanism of action. These include live attenuated vaccines, killed vaccines, extract vaccines, recombinant vaccines, DNA/RNA vaccines, and synthetic peptide vaccines.
Live Vaccines
- These vaccines use a weakened (attenuated) form of a pathogen to stimulate an immune response.
- These types of vaccines can cause mild, short lived symptoms for a person.
Attenuated Vaccines
- These vaccines use a weakened (attenuated) form of a pathogen to stimulate an immune response.
- These are less potent than a live pathogen; however, these have the potential to mutate and become harmful to someone.
Killed/Inactivated Vaccines
- These vaccines contain inactivated (killed) pathogens to stimulate an immune response.
- It's important to note that these dead pathogens cannot replicate or infect someone.
Extract Vaccines
- These vaccines contain purified components of the pathogen, such as proteins or toxins.
- These types of vaccines do not contain the complete pathogen and usually have limited or no reaction to a person.
Recombinant Vaccines
- These vaccines use genetically engineered techniques to produce a specific protein from a pathogen.
- These vaccines are produced in a lab by using genetic material to stimulate an immune response.
DNA/RNA Vaccines
- These vaccines use genetic material (DNA or RNA) from the pathogen to produce specific proteins in the body.
- These vaccines trigger the body's immune response.
Microbial Evasion of the Immune System
- Many microorganisms have adapted mechanisms to evade the human immune system, ensuring pathogen propagation or survival.
- These mechanisms include latency, infecting privileged tissues, killing immune cells, producing toxins, and blocking acquired immunity, including antigen presentation, rapid genetic mutations, or inhibiting cytokines.
Components of a Vaccine
- Antigens are components derived from pathogens recognized as foreign by the immune system.
- Stabilizers are added to maintain vaccine effectiveness during storage (stabilizing agents). This means they resist degradation caused by temperature, acidity or alkalinity.
Adjuvants
- Adjuvants are added to vaccines to enhance the immune response to antigens.
- These ingredients aid in enhancing an immune response by keeping antigens at the injection site long-term, delivering antigens to lymph nodes, and initiating immune responses. They may include preservatives (like thiomersal), as well as antibiotics.
Traditional Vaccine Development Pipeline
- The steps involved in the traditional vaccine development process include discovery, preclinical testing, small-scale process development, and phases I-IV clinical trials.
- Vaccine development is a multi-year endeavor with a continuous evaluation and monitoring process.
Evaluation and Decision
- Documentation submissions, evaluations, and potential approvals by regulatory agencies are crucial for vaccine development and decision-making.
- (Regulatory Agencies) ensure the vaccine is fit for use and that production is safe and standardized.
Manufacturing
- Manufacturers use good manufacturing practices (GMP) to ensure high-quality vaccine production at a large scale.
- This stage ensures consistency and safety of vaccine preparations.
Safety Monitoring
- Continuous safety monitoring of vaccines throughout their lifespan is crucial to identify potential adverse events and address any safety concerns that arise.
Example of Vaccine Mechanism of Action
- The process details how mRNA vaccines introduce pieces of pathogen into human cells to create antibodies.
Immunoassays
- Immunoassays are techniques that detect or quantify specific antigens or antibodies through the interaction of antibodies and antigens.
Factors Affecting Immunoassays in Vitro
- Factors affecting immunoassays include affinity, avidity, antigen-antibody ratio, and physical form of the antigen.
Types of Assays (Immunoassays)
- Various types of immunoassays, including agglutination, precipitation reactions (Ouchterlony, radial immunodiffusion), immunoassays (ELISA, immunofluorescence), cellular assays (mixed lymphocyte reaction, monoclonal antibody production), and flow cytometry.
Agglutination
- The interaction between soluble antibodies and insoluble antigen particles results in the clumping together of these particles.
- The titer of an antibody will be the highest dilution still resulting in detectable agglutination.
Precipitation Reactions
- The interaction between an antibody and a soluble antigen results in a lattice formation, leading to a visible precipitate.
- For optimal precipitate formation, both the antibody and the antigen need appropriate valency (relative binding capacity).
Ouchterlony Double Immunodiffusion
- Used to detect or quantify antibodies and antigens through precipitation reactions in an agar medium.
Radial Immunodiffusion
- Used to determine the concentration of antigens by measuring the size of rings formed by antigen diffusion around wells in an agar medium.
Immunofluorescence
- This technique involves fluorescent dyes attached to antibodies to identify or locate specific antigens in tissue samples.
Flow Cytometer
- A flow cytometer uses a laser beam and light detectors to analyze and quantify cells in suspension based on their physical and chemical characteristics.
Polyclonal Antibodies Production
- Polyclonal antibodies are produced by injecting an animal with a specific antigen. These antibodies are derived from numerous B-cell clones, each responding to a unique portion (epitope) of the antigen.
Monoclonal Antibodies Production
- Monoclonal antibodies are produced through a cell fusion technique, generating a stable cell line (hybridoma) that produces identical antibodies to a single epitope on the antigen.
ELISA (Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay)
- A common technique used to detect or quantify antigens or antibodies based on enzyme activity and colour intensity.
Indirect ELISA
- A detection or quantification technique for antibodies, using primary and secondary antibodies and enzyme activity to quantify results.
Sandwich ELISA
- A method for detecting antigens using an immobilized antibody that binds the antigen before binding to a second enzyme-linked antibody.
Competitive ELISA
- A method of determining antigen concentration based on preventing antibodies from binding to an antigen.
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Description
Test your knowledge on vaccines, their components, and the immune response they invoke. This quiz covers various types of vaccines, their mechanisms, and related terminologies. Ideal for students studying immunology or related fields.
