Vaccination: History and Global Impact
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary reason for deferring the destruction of live variola virus stocks?

  • To ensure the virus remains available for research
  • To prevent unauthorized access to smallpox
  • To reflect on the best options for global public health (correct)
  • To review the benefits of the variola virus research programme

    • What percentage of the smallpox genome can any institution legally possess according to WHO recommendations?

  • 10%
  • 5%
  • 50%
  • 20% (correct)

    • What is one of the severe complications that can arise from measles infections in children?

  • Acute respiratory distress syndrome
  • Chronic kidney disease
  • Rheumatoid arthritis
  • Acute encephalitis (correct)

    • In healthy children, what is the estimated death rate from complications due to measles?

    <p>1 to 2 in 1000</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the death rate from measles for immunocompromised individuals?

    <p>30%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following countries is not currently polio-endemic?

    <p>India</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main consequence of poliomyelitis infection?

    <p>Nerve injury leading to paralysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes measles?

    <p>A highly contagious viral infection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of the world population has received at least one dose of the COVID-19 vaccine?

    <p>70.6%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the significance of Edward Jenner's work in relation to infectious diseases?

    <p>He was the first to control disease through vaccination.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the fatality rate of smallpox as mentioned in the content?

    <p>20 to 60%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did Jenner test his hypothesis about vaccination?

    <p>By injecting cowpox material into a child.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What ultimately happened to smallpox as a result of vaccination?

    <p>It was eradicated globally.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the boundary concern regarding smallpox even after its eradication?

    <p>Frozen samples still existing in laboratories.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following accurately reflects the historical context of smallpox vaccination?

    <p>Cowpox immunity was linked to smallpox immunity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What global statistic about COVID-19 vaccinations is highlighted?

    <p>13.57 billion doses have been administered.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why are polio vaccines still administered?

    <p>International travel increases the risk of outbreaks.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines herd immunity?

    <p>Majority of the population is immune to a specific pathogen.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following features impact vaccine effectiveness?

    <p>Pathogens establishing latency in hosts.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a reason for using passive immunity?

    <p>Immediate need for protection against complications.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes attenuated vaccines?

    <p>They provoke an immune response without causing the disease.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How are most flu vaccines produced?

    <p>Rooting in eggs for both inactivated and attenuated types.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between killed and attenuated viruses in vaccines?

    <p>Attenuated viruses are alive but non-pathogenic.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the issue with killed viral vaccines?

    <p>Boosters are often required for effective immunity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which Covid-19 vaccine is no longer in use?

    <p>Johnson and Johnson</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key limitation of killed viral vaccines?

    <p>They often need multiple doses for effective immunity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of vaccine is primarily used in the flu shot?

    <p>Inactivated (killed) virus vaccines</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why must the flu vaccine be reformulated each year?

    <p>To reflect current strains circulating in the population</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following strains was included in the 2021/22 flu vaccine?

    <p>B/Washington/02/2019</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the general outcome of vaccination in an individual?

    <p>Generation of an antibody response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How long did it take to develop the rotavirus vaccine?

    <p>30 years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What misconception about vaccines has been thoroughly debunked?

    <p>Vaccination can lead to autism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the nature of Wakefield's study linking MMR vaccine to autism?

    <p>Fraudulent with selective sampling</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens when vaccination rates drop in the population?

    <p>Increase in infectious disease incidence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of virus is Rotarix?

    <p>Live attenuated human retrovirus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which vaccine contains a mixture of nonpathogenic cattle rotoviruses?

    <p>RotaTeq</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the first mRNA vaccine developed against?

    <p>Ebola virus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of mRNA vaccines?

    <p>To produce neutralizing antibodies that recognize the spike protein</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following vaccines is a protein subunit vaccine?

    <p>Novavax</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of immune cells do mRNA vaccines aim to generate besides neutralizing antibodies?

    <p>CD8+ cytotoxic T-cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about mRNA technology is true?

    <p>It was used for developing a vaccine against SARS-CoV-2.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What common characteristic is shared by vaccines like Measles-mumps-rubella (MMR) and Hepatitis A?

    <p>They require two doses.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential outcome of receiving an mRNA vaccine?

    <p>Production of neutralizing antibodies and memory cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of booster shots in vaccination?

    <p>They help to maintain or enhance immunity over time.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of adjuvants in vaccines?

    <p>To activate and enhance the immune response to antigens</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of immune response do adjuvants primarily activate?

    <p>Innate immune response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of coronaviruses?

    <p>They are zoonotic, meaning they transmit between animals and humans</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following coronaviruses was identified in 2003?

    <p>SARS-CoV</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why are vaccines against chronic infections less common?

    <p>Most effective vaccines target acute infections</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do complement proteins and macrophages play in the immune response?

    <p>They are the first defense against a viral attack</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What signals indicate that the innate immune response is insufficient?

    <p>Production of interferon and host cell death</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do respiratory viruses typically enter host cells?

    <p>By attaching to membrane proteins and triggering endocytosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about RNA vaccines is true?

    <p>They utilize messenger RNA to instruct cells to produce a viral protein</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to cells infected by viruses?

    <p>They are killed and release new viruses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What primarily limits the size of a cell?

    <p>The effective diffusion distance for substances</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary goal of synthetic biology?

    <p>To create novel life forms starting from existing organisms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which principle suggests selecting the hypothesis with the fewest assumptions?

    <p>Occam's razor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one method used in the scientific method to refine hypotheses?

    <p>Data collection and interpretation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the limit on cell size affect about cellular function?

    <p>The efficiency of nutrient exchange</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary structural and functional unit of all living organisms?

    <p>Cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who was the first person to observe microscopic 'animalcules' in pond water?

    <p>Anton Leewenhoek</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term did Robert Hooke use to describe the pores in cork when observed under a microscope?

    <p>Cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes tissues in biological terms?

    <p>Cells that aggregate to form a specific function</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When were significant advancements in microscopy made that led to the discovery of cells?

    <p>1865</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a fully differentiated structural and functional unit in an animal refer to?

    <p>Organ</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is essential for understanding terminology in cell biology?

    <p>Use of a glossary</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What structure is responsible for producing energy in a cell?

    <p>Mitochondria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term is used to refer to the ancient common ancestor of all living cells?

    <p>Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells share?

    <p>Plasma membrane and ribosomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following organisms is commonly used as a model organism in biological research?

    <p>Drosophila (fruit fly)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what unit are cells commonly measured?

    <p>Micrometers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes eukaryotic cells from prokaryotic cells?

    <p>Presence of a membrane-bound nucleus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What fundamental principle regarding all living organisms is supported by modern biology?

    <p>All living organisms share a common ancestor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the phrase 'form reflects function' imply in cellular biology?

    <p>The shape and size of cells are adapted to their specific functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common characteristic of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

    <p>Identical genetic code</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of cell is generally smaller, prokaryotic or eukaryotic?

    <p>Prokaryotic cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process or structure is common among all cells?

    <p>Ribosomes for protein synthesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who were the key figures in articulating the cell theory?

    <p>Matthias Schleiden, Theodor Schwann, Rudolf Virchow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary means through which cells reproduce?

    <p>Cell division</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do HeLa cells represent in cellular biology?

    <p>Cultured tumor cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which property of cells allows them to maintain their complexity and ordered state?

    <p>Self-regulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do cells acquire energy necessary for their functions?

    <p>By utilizing products of photosynthesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best defines the metabolic activities of a cell?

    <p>A sum of cellular chemical reactions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main role of motor proteins in cells?

    <p>Facilitate mechanical movements</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What triggers a cell's response to environmental stimuli?

    <p>Receptor interaction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What significant concept does the statement 'all cells in an organism contain identical copies of DNA' convey?

    <p>Genetic identity among all cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which process do cells ensure an equal partitioning of genetic material?

    <p>Mitosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What contributes to genetic variation in organisms according to the content?

    <p>Mutations in genes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do feedback circuits function in cells?

    <p>To return the cell to a stable state</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cells produce energy by converting glucose into which compound?

    <p>ATP</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes a theory from a hypothesis?

    <p>A theory is a hypothesis that has been extensively tested.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of a scientific law?

    <p>Law of thermodynamics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one fundamental difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

    <p>Eukaryotes have complex cellular structures.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What limits cell size in living organisms?

    <p>Surface area to volume ratio.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best characterizes a hypothesis?

    <p>It is a testable explanation consistent with most data.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of a cell?

    <p>To produce energy and build necessary substances for life</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who was responsible for the invention of the microscope that led to the discovery of cells?

    <p>Robert Hooke</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term did Hooke use to describe the structures he observed in cork?

    <p>Cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an organ defined as in the context of cell biology?

    <p>A collection of tissues that perform a specific function</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Anton Leewenhoek contribute to the field of cell biology?

    <p>First observation of microscopic 'animalcules'</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How should students utilize the glossary provided in their resources?

    <p>Always be clear on the meaning of words</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines tissues in the context of cellular organization?

    <p>Cells that aggregate to form a specific function</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was Hooke's observation regarding cork cells influenced by?

    <p>Living quarters of monks in a monastery</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What limits the size of a cell?

    <p>The ability to exchange nutrients efficiently</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of synthetic biology?

    <p>To create new living cells in the laboratory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes Occam's razor?

    <p>A rule to select the simplest explanation consistent with observations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How are scientific theories assessed according to the scientific method?

    <p>By collecting and interpreting data</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes a theory from a hypothesis in scientific terms?

    <p>A theory has been extensively tested and widely accepted.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the factors that can increase cell size beyond normal limits?

    <p>The efficiency of nutrient absorption</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best characterizes a scientific law?

    <p>It is a statement of fact confirmed by lengthy testing.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the fundamental differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

    <p>Eukaryotes have a defined nucleus and complex organelles.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What limits cell size in biological entities?

    <p>The need for efficient transport of materials in and out of the cell.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is the best definition of a hypothesis?

    <p>A speculative statement that has not been tested.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately reflects a characteristic shared by prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

    <p>They share a common genetic code.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of LUCA in the study of cellular evolution?

    <p>LUCA represents a common ancestor for all living organisms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of cells are generally smaller and simpler in structure?

    <p>Prokaryotic cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following organisms is NOT classified as a eukaryotic model organism?

    <p>Escherichia coli (bacterium)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do cells share that indicates their common ancestry?

    <p>Identical genetic language</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the concept 'form reflects function' imply in cellular biology?

    <p>Cell structure and function are interconnected.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How can cells be measured commonly?

    <p>In units of micrometers and nanometers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes prokaryotic cells from eukaryotic cells?

    <p>Prokaryotic cells lack defined organelles.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following features do all cells share?

    <p>Presence of a plasma membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor contributes to the classification of organisms as model organisms in biological studies?

    <p>Ease of manipulation and rapid generation time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who articulated the cell theory in the mid-1800s?

    <p>Matthias Schleiden, Theodor Schwann, and Rudolf Virchow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What property allows cells to reproduce?

    <p>Cell division</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the sum total of chemical reactions taking place in a cell known as?

    <p>Metabolism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process do cells utilize to acquire energy from glucose?

    <p>Cell respiration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is true about genetic information in cells?

    <p>All cells contain identical DNA but may differentiate during development.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic allows cells to adapt to their environments and respond to stimuli?

    <p>Self-regulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do motor proteins play in cells?

    <p>Enabling mechanical activities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one essential function of enzymes in cellular processes?

    <p>To increase the rate of chemical reactions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why are HeLa cells significant in biological research?

    <p>They were the first tumor cells isolated from a patient.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do most cells respond to environmental stimuli?

    <p>Through receptor interactions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the cellular process of division?

    <p>Genetic material is duplicated before division.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the complexity of cells?

    <p>Cells are highly complex and organized.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines a self-regulating cell?

    <p>Cells can maintain stable internal conditions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do cells acquire energy for functioning?

    <p>By breaking down various biochemical compounds</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What structure is considered the basic microscopic unit of all living beings?

    <p>Cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Robert Hooke discover when he first used the microscope?

    <p>Cork cells with pores</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which scientist is credited with the refinement of the microscope in the 17th century?

    <p>Anton Leewenhoek</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes a group of cells that aggregate to perform a specific function?

    <p>Tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of Hooke's observations in relation to the study of cell biology?

    <p>They established the concept of cells as the basic unit of life.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the early study of microscopy, what did Hooke refer to the small units he observed?

    <p>Cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of organisms did Leewenhoek observe under the microscope?

    <p>Animalcules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What resource is recommended for understanding the terminology used in cell biology?

    <p>Glossary</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes a scientific law from a hypothesis?

    <p>A law is an established fact confirmed over a long period.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is true about theories in science?

    <p>A theory is a hypothesis extensively tested and widely accepted.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic allows a hypothesis to be scientifically useful?

    <p>It must be testable through experiments or observations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the fundamental differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

    <p>Prokaryotes do not have membrane-bound organelles.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used for the ancient cell from which all living organisms evolved?

    <p>Last Universal Common Ancestor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately distinguishes prokaryotic cells from eukaryotic cells?

    <p>Prokaryotic cells lack membrane-bound organelles, unlike eukaryotic cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which feature is shared by both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

    <p>Identical genetic language</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a fundamental principle regarding the relationship between cellular form and function?

    <p>Morphology reflects physiology.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a type of eukaryotic model organism mentioned?

    <p>Escherichia coli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What unit is commonly used to measure cell sizes?

    <p>Micrometers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic is primarily associated with eukaryotic cells compared to prokaryotic cells?

    <p>Complex cellular structures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do ribosomes play in cells?

    <p>Synthesize proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements best describes the metabolic pathways in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

    <p>They are identical due to their common ancestry.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a principle associated with the scientific method?

    <p>The simplest explanation is often the most likely correct</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main goal of synthetic biology?

    <p>To develop novel life forms from existing organisms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor limits the volume of cytoplasm in a cell?

    <p>The genes available in the nucleus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'tenuous' imply in the context of scientific facts?

    <p>Facts are subject to change and reinterpretation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately reflects a property of cells?

    <p>Cells are capable of self-regulation through feedback circuits.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary method through which cells reproduce?

    <p>By division where a 'mother' cell distributes its contents into two 'daughter' cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure is crucial for energy conversion in animal cells?

    <p>Mitochondria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the sum total of all chemical reactions in a cell?

    <p>Metabolism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do cells typically respond to external stimuli?

    <p>By altering their internal metabolism or behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes HeLa cells in cell biology?

    <p>They are immortal cell lines derived from a cancer patient.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one function of motor proteins in cells?

    <p>To facilitate the transportation of materials or cell movement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a critical emerging property of cells discussed in the materials?

    <p>Cells evolve and adapt based on genetic variations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which property of cells allows them to be highly organized?

    <p>Presence of a structured genetic blueprint encoded in genes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does photosynthesis contribute to cellular processes in animals?

    <p>It generates glucose that animals convert into energy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of Enzymes in cellular chemical reactions?

    <p>They increase the rate of chemical reactions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement is NOT true about the genetic information in cells?

    <p>Cells utilize distinct genetic codes for specific functions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of energy process depends on chloroplasts in certain cells?

    <p>Photosynthesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Vaccination

    •  Cartoon depicts anti-vaccine sentiments and misinformation
    •  Cartoon highlights the spread of misinformation regarding vaccines and encourages community vaccination

    Global Vaccine Situation

    •  775,251,779 total COVID-19 cases reported as of March 31, 2024
    •  7,043,660 total COVID-19 deaths reported as of March 31, 2024
    •  13.57 billion doses of COVID-19 vaccines administered globally
    •  70.6% of the world's population has received at least one dose of a COVID-19 vaccine
    •  32.7% of low-income countries have received at least one dose of a COVID-19 vaccine

    Smallpox Vaccination

    •  Smallpox was a deadly disease with a 20-60% fatality rate
    •  Survivors were often immune after contracting the disease
    •  Observations linked milkmaids contracting cowpox to immunity against smallpox
    •  In May 1796, Jenner used material from a cowpox lesion to inoculate an 8-year-old boy, who did not contract smallpox later
    •  Jenner's work was a first attempt to control an infectious disease

    Smallpox Eradication and Current Status

    •  Smallpox was officially eradicated after a three-year period (no cases)
    •  Smallpox vaccines are no longer administered
    •  Frozen smallpox samples exist in the US and Russia; controversy regarding their destruction
    •  A gas explosion at a Russian lab in 2019 involved smallpox samples, but no samples were compromised
    •  WHO recommended deferring live variola virus stock destruction by up to five years

    Measles Vaccination

    •  Measles is a highly contagious viral disease leading to pneumonia, encephalitis and pregnancy complications
    •  Measles is one of the leading vaccine-preventable causes of death globally
    •  Healthy children have a 1 in 1000 risk of contracting encephalitis after measles, often resulting in permanent brain damage
    •  Healthy children have a 1-2 in 1000 risk of death after measles from respiratory or neurological complications
    •  Immunocompromised individuals have a near 30% risk of death from measles.
    •  Measles is still a global concern.

    Polio Vaccination

    •  Poliomyelitis is a viral infection that can cause nerve damage and paralysis
    •  Currently, there are only three countries with ongoing polio epidemics: Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Nigeria
    •  Polio vaccines are still administered globally to prevent epidemic outbreaks due to high international travel volume

    Herd Immunity

    •  Herd immunity occurs when most of a population is immune to an infectious disease
    •  The spread of disease in a community with herd immunity is reduced
    •  This helps protect susceptible individuals

    Infectious Diseases

    •  Infectious diseases remain the leading cause of death globally
    •  This section lists several infectious diseases and the effective vaccines for each

    Effective Vaccines

    •  Effective vaccines must not cause illness themselves and offer sustained protection against disease
    •  Effective vaccines must elicit enduring immunity to pathogens
    •  Safe vaccines for use in humans must either be inactive (killed) or attenuated (weakened) forms of virus

    Flu Vaccine

    •  Most flu vaccines are grown in fertilized chicken eggs (~82%)
    •  Cell-based flu vaccines are emerging as an alternative
    •  Flu vaccines must be reformulated annually due to viral variations

    COVID-19 Vaccines

    •  Three different types of COVID-19 vaccines are currently used:  mRNA, protein subunit, and adenoviral vector vaccines
    •  COVID-19 vaccines involve mRNA technology and contain the instructions to produce the COVID-19 spike protein, which generate an immune response in humans

    Immune System Response to Viral Attack

    •  Initial defense against viral attack are complement proteins and macrophages
    •  Natural killer cells and additional phagocytes (neutrophils) are activated if response is insufficient
    •  Adaptive immune system is slower to respond to new viruses if innate immune system is overwhelmed.

    Viral Replication and Vaccination

    •  Most viral vaccines are made from killed or attenuated viruses to elicit an immune response
    •  Killed viruses are not capable of replicating
    •  Attenuated viruses are capable of replicating but lack pathogenicity in humans

    Additional Information

    •  Adjuvants are substances added to vaccines to strengthen the immune response
    •  A variety of vaccines are used for different purposes.

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    Description

    Explore the evolution of vaccination with a focus on smallpox and COVID-19. This quiz examines the spread of misinformation and highlights the crucial role of vaccines in global health. Test your knowledge on key statistical data and historical milestones in vaccination.

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