Vaccination: History and Global Impact

<p>1 to 2 in 1000 (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>30% (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>India (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Nerve injury leading to paralysis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A highly contagious viral infection (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>70.6% (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>He was the first to control disease through vaccination. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>20 to 60% (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>By injecting cowpox material into a child. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It was eradicated globally. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Frozen samples still existing in laboratories. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cowpox immunity was linked to smallpox immunity. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>13.57 billion doses have been administered. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>International travel increases the risk of outbreaks. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Majority of the population is immune to a specific pathogen. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Pathogens establishing latency in hosts. (A), High antigenic variation in pathogens. (B), Pathogens interfering with the host immune response. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Immediate need for protection against complications. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They provoke an immune response without causing the disease. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Rooting in eggs for both inactivated and attenuated types. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Attenuated viruses are alive but non-pathogenic. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Boosters are often required for effective immunity. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Johnson and Johnson (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They often need multiple doses for effective immunity. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Inactivated (killed) virus vaccines (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To reflect current strains circulating in the population (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>B/Washington/02/2019 (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Generation of an antibody response (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>30 years (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Vaccination can lead to autism (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Fraudulent with selective sampling (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Increase in infectious disease incidence (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Live attenuated human retrovirus (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>RotaTeq (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Ebola virus (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To produce neutralizing antibodies that recognize the spike protein (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Novavax (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>CD8+ cytotoxic T-cells (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It was used for developing a vaccine against SARS-CoV-2. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They require two doses. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Production of neutralizing antibodies and memory cells. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They help to maintain or enhance immunity over time. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To activate and enhance the immune response to antigens (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Innate immune response (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They are zoonotic, meaning they transmit between animals and humans (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>SARS-CoV (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Most effective vaccines target acute infections (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They are the first defense against a viral attack (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Production of interferon and host cell death (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>By attaching to membrane proteins and triggering endocytosis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They utilize messenger RNA to instruct cells to produce a viral protein (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They are killed and release new viruses (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The effective diffusion distance for substances (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To create novel life forms starting from existing organisms (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Occam's razor (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Data collection and interpretation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The efficiency of nutrient exchange (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cell (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Anton Leewenhoek (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cells (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cells that aggregate to form a specific function (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>1865 (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Organ (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Use of a glossary (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Mitochondria (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA) (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Plasma membrane and ribosomes (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Drosophila (fruit fly) (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Micrometers (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Presence of a membrane-bound nucleus (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>All living organisms share a common ancestor (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The shape and size of cells are adapted to their specific functions (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Identical genetic code (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Prokaryotic cells (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Ribosomes for protein synthesis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Matthias Schleiden, Theodor Schwann, Rudolf Virchow (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cell division (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cultured tumor cells (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Self-regulation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>By utilizing products of photosynthesis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A sum of cellular chemical reactions (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Facilitate mechanical movements (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Receptor interaction (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Genetic identity among all cells (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Mitosis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Mutations in genes (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To return the cell to a stable state (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>ATP (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A theory is a hypothesis that has been extensively tested. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Law of thermodynamics (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Eukaryotes have complex cellular structures. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Surface area to volume ratio. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It is a testable explanation consistent with most data. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To produce energy and build necessary substances for life (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Robert Hooke (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cells (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A collection of tissues that perform a specific function (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>First observation of microscopic 'animalcules' (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Always be clear on the meaning of words (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cells that aggregate to form a specific function (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Living quarters of monks in a monastery (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The ability to exchange nutrients efficiently (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To create new living cells in the laboratory (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A rule to select the simplest explanation consistent with observations (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>By collecting and interpreting data (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A theory has been extensively tested and widely accepted. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The efficiency of nutrient absorption (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It is a statement of fact confirmed by lengthy testing. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Eukaryotes have a defined nucleus and complex organelles. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The need for efficient transport of materials in and out of the cell. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A speculative statement that has not been tested. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They share a common genetic code. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>LUCA represents a common ancestor for all living organisms. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Prokaryotic cells (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Escherichia coli (bacterium) (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Identical genetic language (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cell structure and function are interconnected. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>In units of micrometers and nanometers (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Prokaryotic cells lack defined organelles. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Presence of a plasma membrane (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Ease of manipulation and rapid generation time (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Matthias Schleiden, Theodor Schwann, and Rudolf Virchow (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cell division (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Metabolism (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cell respiration (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>All cells contain identical DNA but may differentiate during development. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Self-regulation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Enabling mechanical activities (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To increase the rate of chemical reactions (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They were the first tumor cells isolated from a patient. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Through receptor interactions (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Genetic material is duplicated before division. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cells are highly complex and organized. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cells can maintain stable internal conditions. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>By breaking down various biochemical compounds (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cell (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cork cells with pores (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Anton Leewenhoek (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Tissue (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They established the concept of cells as the basic unit of life. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cells (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Animalcules (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Glossary (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A law is an established fact confirmed over a long period. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A theory is a hypothesis extensively tested and widely accepted. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It must be testable through experiments or observations. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Prokaryotes do not have membrane-bound organelles. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Last Universal Common Ancestor (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Prokaryotic cells lack membrane-bound organelles, unlike eukaryotic cells. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Identical genetic language (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Morphology reflects physiology. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Escherichia coli (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Micrometers (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Complex cellular structures (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Synthesize proteins (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They are identical due to their common ancestry. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The simplest explanation is often the most likely correct (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To develop novel life forms from existing organisms (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The genes available in the nucleus (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Facts are subject to change and reinterpretation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cells are capable of self-regulation through feedback circuits. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>By division where a 'mother' cell distributes its contents into two 'daughter' cells (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Mitochondria (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Metabolism (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>By altering their internal metabolism or behavior (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They are immortal cell lines derived from a cancer patient. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To facilitate the transportation of materials or cell movement (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cells evolve and adapt based on genetic variations. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Presence of a structured genetic blueprint encoded in genes (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It generates glucose that animals convert into energy. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They increase the rate of chemical reactions. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cells utilize distinct genetic codes for specific functions. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Photosynthesis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A process that uses a vaccine to build immunity to a disease.

An infectious disease that was once very common and deadly but has been eradicated.

A doctor who pioneered the concept of vaccination against smallpox.

A disease similar to smallpox, used to create the first smallpox vaccine.

Measurable degree of protection against a disease provided by vaccination.

Complete elimination of smallpox from the world due to global vaccination efforts.

International efforts to control and prevent diseases through widespread vaccination.

Preserved samples of vaccines, predominantly of smallpox, in selected locations.

An incident occurred that didn't compromise samples, but highlighted potential risks in containing the variola virus.

WHO research program on variola virus should benefit everyone, and virus destruction is postponed for five years.

No institution should hold over 20% of the smallpox genome.

Highly contagious virus, impacting global health, causing pneumonia, encephalitis, and pregnancy complications.

Critical for preventing measles-related death and brain damage, especially in children.

Viral infection causing nerve injury and paralysis.

Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Nigeria are the only remaining countries with ongoing polio outbreaks.

Vaccination programs have dramatically reduced polio cases globally, but a few countries still have ongoing outbreaks.

When a significant portion of a population is immune to a pathogen, making it difficult for the disease to spread.

Polio has not been eradicated, and with widespread international travel, there's a constant risk of outbreaks.

Infectious diseases remain the biggest threat to human life worldwide.

The effectiveness of a vaccine depends on the pathogen's characteristics, like how much it changes, if it hides, and how it interacts with the immune system.

The measles vaccine is sensitive to heat, requiring careful storage and handling.

Passive immunity is used when a person can't produce antibodies themselves, or when immediate protection is needed.

There are different types of COVID-19 vaccines, including mRNA (Pfizer, Moderna), viral vector (Johnson & Johnson), and protein subunit (Novavax).

These vaccines use a weakened version of the virus that can't cause the disease but stimulates the immune response.

Most viral vaccines are made from killed or weakened versions of the virus.

An attenuated virus is a live virus that has been weakened so it can't cause disease, but can still trigger an immune response.

SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for COVID-19, does not replicate within eggs. This is different from some other viruses, like influenza, which are grown in eggs for vaccine production.

The flu shot contains inactivated (killed) influenza viruses, which trigger an immune response without causing illness. It's typically a combination of three strains representing the most prevalent viruses.

Flu viruses constantly evolve through genetic drift and shift, requiring annual adjustments to the vaccine formula to match circulating strains. This ensures the best protection for the upcoming flu season.

The flu shot prompts your body to produce antibodies against specific flu strains. These antibodies help fight off infection if you encounter these strains.

Creating a rotavirus vaccine took a lengthy 30 years of research and development. This illustrates the complexity and length of time needed to develop effective vaccines.

Rotavirus causes severe diarrhea, especially in children. It is a significant global burden, causing hundreds of thousands of deaths yearly.

Two rotavirus vaccines are available: Rotarix, which uses a live, weakened human rotavirus, and RotaTeq, which contains a mix of five cattle rotaviruses that are safe for humans.

The development of a vaccine against the 2009 H1N1 pandemic was rapid and involved many stages, including virus identification, vaccine production, and clinical trials.

When vaccination rates decline, the incidence of preventable diseases like measles increases. This highlights the importance of consistent vaccination programs.

There is no scientific link between autism and vaccination. This misconception was based on fraudulent research that has been repeatedly refuted.

To produce neutralizing antibodies that recognize the spike protein and generate CD8+ cytotoxic T-cells, aiming to fight off the virus.

Developed in the 70s, a safe method of delivering mRNA into cells was achieved after overcoming technical challenges.

Created against the Ebola virus, it lacked commercial potential despite being the first mRNA vaccine.

Achieved with the emergence of SARS-CoV-2, paving the way for other applications, like cancer therapeutics.

The vaccine delivers mRNA that instructs the cells to produce the virus's spike protein, triggering an immune response.

The vaccine introduces a harmless version of the virus's spike protein, causing the immune system to produce antibodies.

Both are RNA vaccines, while Novavax uses a protein subunit approach, all used for COVID-19 vaccination in Canada and the US.

They are administered to refresh the immune system's memory and maintain high levels of antibodies against the virus.

Substances added to vaccines to boost the immune response against the antigen, making the vaccine more effective.

They activate the innate immune system, which is necessary to trigger the adaptive immune system and create a long-lasting immunity.

A tiny infectious agent that consists of genetic material (RNA or DNA) enclosed in a protein coat. It needs a host cell to replicate.

Viruses have three main types of proteins: replication, packaging and delivery, and host cell modification. These proteins help the virus replicate and spread.

Coronaviruses are zoonotic, meaning they can be transmitted from animals to humans and vice versa.

RNA vaccines use a piece of genetic material (mRNA) that instructs the body's cells to produce a specific protein from the virus.

The mRNA in the vaccine is taken up by cells, which use it to produce viral proteins. The immune system recognizes these proteins as foreign and develops immunity against the virus.

The first line of defense against viruses is the innate immune system, involving complement proteins and macrophages.

The adaptive immune system is activated when the innate immune system is overwhelmed, involving natural killer cells, phagocytes, and interferon production.

Respiratory viruses bind to normal membrane proteins on cells and trigger endocytosis, entering the cell.

The maximum size a cell can reach is limited by the amount of cytoplasm that can be supported by its genes and the efficiency of nutrient exchange and diffusion.

A green alga that defies typical cell size limitations, reaching lengths over 10 cm due to its unique cellular structure and adaptation.

A field of science focused on creating artificial life forms in a laboratory setting, often by manipulating existing organisms.

A systematic approach used to assess new information through hypothesis formulation, data collection, analysis, and conclusion based on the evidence.

A principle stating that the simplest explanation that fits the observations is usually the most likely to be correct.

The smallest, basic unit of life in all living organisms. It's responsible for producing energy and building the substances necessary for its own survival.

A group of similar cells that work together to perform a specific function.

A fully developed, specialized unit in an animal composed of different tissues that work together to perform a complex function.

Microscopes, invented by Robert Hooke and refined by Anton Leewenhoek, enabled scientists to observe the microscopic world, leading to the discovery and understanding of cells.

Robert Hooke observed the pores in cork, which he named 'cells' because they reminded him of the small rooms monks lived in.

Anton Leewenhoek was the first to examine pond water under a microscope, observing the teeming microscopic life he called 'animalcules'.

Cells are the fundamental building blocks of all living organisms. They are responsible for all life processes.

The textbook offers on-line resources like glossaries, flashcards, quizzes, and practice questions to help students learn about cells.

The last universal common ancestor, a hypothetical single-celled organism from which all life on Earth evolved more than 3 billion years ago.

Cells that lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.

Cells with a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.

All cells share basic features like a common genetic code, a plasma membrane, and ribosomes.

Simple organisms used in research due to their fast growth, large offspring, and ease of manipulation. Examples include bacteria, yeasts, fruit flies, nematode worms, and mice.

A unit of measurement used for cells, equaling 10^-6 meters.

A unit of measurement used for cell components, equaling 10^-9 meters.

The structure of a cell or organelle is directly related to its specific roles and activities.

The study of chemical processes occurring within cells, including metabolism and energy production.

The study of the structure, function, and behavior of cells, the fundamental units of life.

A proposed explanation for an observation that can be tested through experimentation. It's a statement that is consistent with most of the data, and may take the form of a model, which is an explanation that accounts for the data.

A hypothesis that has been extensively tested and supported by multiple investigators using different approaches, it is widely accepted within the scientific community. It's a more comprehensive and robust explanation compared to a hypothesis.

1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells. 2. The cell is the basic unit of life. 3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

Surface area to volume ratio. As a cell grows larger, its volume increases faster than its surface area, making it more difficult for the cell to exchange nutrients and waste with its environment.

A fundamental principle in biology that explains the basic structure and organization of living organisms. It states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells, the cell is the fundamental unit of life, and all cells arise from pre-existing cells.

A line of human cells, originally derived from a cervical cancer patient, Henrietta Lacks, that are widely used in scientific research.

Cells grown in a controlled environment outside of an organism, used for studying cell behavior, drug testing, and other research purposes.

Cells are highly organized, possess a genetic program, replicate themselves, acquire and utilize energy, carry out chemical reactions, engage in mechanical activities, respond to stimuli, and regulate their internal environment.

Similar structure, composition, and metabolic features among cells of different species that have been preserved over evolutionary time.

Genes, the units of heredity, store the information necessary for constructing cellular structures, carrying out cellular functions, and producing more cells.

Changes in genetic information (mutations) contribute to variation among individuals, which provides the raw material for biological evolution.

Cells reproduce by dividing, a process where the contents of a parent cell are equally distributed into two daughter cells, each containing a complete set of genetic information.

Photosynthesis is the process by which plants convert light energy into chemical energy, which is used to fuel life on Earth.

The process by which cells break down glucose (sugar) to produce ATP, a molecule used for energy.

Enzymes are proteins that catalyze (speed up) chemical reactions in cells, collectively known as metabolism.

Cells carry out a wide range of mechanical activities, from transporting materials to moving themselves, driven by changes in the shape of motor proteins.

Cells have receptors that interact with external stimuli, like hormones and other molecules, allowing them to respond and adapt to changes in their environment.

Cells maintain a stable internal environment through feedback circuits that regulate their composition and behavior.

Cells have evolved over millions of years, adapting to different environments and developing new features.

A tool that magnifies small objects, enabling the observation of cells and other microscopic structures.

A scientist who first observed cells in cork using a microscope, naming them 'cells' because they reminded him of monk's cells in a monastery.

A scientist who refined the microscope and was the first to observe living 'animalcules' (microscopic organisms) in pond water.

1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells. 2. The cell is the basic unit of life. 3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

Simple organisms used in research due to their rapid growth, large offspring, and ease of manipulation. Examples include bacteria, yeasts, fruit flies, nematode worms, and mice.

A German botanist who contributed to the development of cell theory by recognizing that all plants are made up of cells.

A German physiologist who extended cell theory to animals, recognizing that all living things are made up of cells.

A German physician who proposed the concept of 'omnis cellula e cellula,' meaning all cells arise from pre-existing cells.

1. All living things are made up of cells. 2. Cells are the basic unit of life. 3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

Cells are complex and organized, possess a genetic program, replicate themselves, acquire and utilize energy, carry out chemical reactions, engage in mechanical activities, respond to stimuli, and regulate their internal environment.

Photosynthesis is the process by which plants convert light energy into chemical energy, which is used to fuel life on Earth.

The process by which cells break down glucose (sugar) to produce ATP, a molecule used for energy.

Enzymes are proteins that catalyze (speed up) chemical reactions in cells, collectively known as metabolism.

Simple organisms used in research due to their fast growth, large offspring, and ease of manipulation.

A scientific field focused on creating artificial life forms in a laboratory setting, often by manipulating existing organisms. It aims to design and build new biological parts, devices, and systems, with potential applications in medicine, industry, and the environment.

A systematic approach used to investigate and understand the natural world. It involves formulating hypotheses, conducting experiments, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions. The goal is to test ideas and build a body of knowledge based on evidence.

Cells are the fundamental building blocks of all living organisms, responsible for carrying out all essential life processes.

Microscopes, invented by Robert Hooke and refined by Anton Leewenhoek, enabled scientists to observe the microscopic world, leading to the discovery and understanding of cells.

Robert Hooke observed the pores in cork, which he named 'cells' because they reminded him of the small rooms monks lived in.

Anton Leewenhoek, using a refined microscope, was the first to observe living 'animalcules' (microscopic organisms) in pond water.

The maximum size a cell can reach is limited by the amount of cytoplasm that can be supported by its genes and the efficiency of nutrient exchange and diffusion.

A systematic approach used to assess new information through hypothesis formulation, data collection, analysis, and conclusion based on the evidence.

The Cell Theory was articulated in the mid-1800s by Matthias Schleiden, Theodor Schwann, and Rudolf Virchow.

The process by which cells reproduce, where the contents of a parent cell are equally distributed into two daughter cells, each containing a complete set of genetic information.

A unit of heredity, a segment of DNA that carries instructions for building a cellular structure or carrying out a specific function.

The sum total of all chemical reactions happening within a cell.

The process by which plants convert light energy into chemical energy, fueling life on Earth.

The process by which cells break down glucose (sugar) to produce ATP, a molecule used for energy.

Proteins that catalyze (speed up) chemical reactions in cells.

Proteins responsible for cellular movement and transportation within cells.

Cells maintain a stable internal environment through feedback circuits that regulate their composition and behavior.

Similar structure, composition, and metabolic features among cells of different species that have been preserved over evolutionary time.

The Last Universal Common Ancestor, a hypothetical single-celled organism from which all life on Earth evolved.

Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles, while eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and other organelles. Prokaryotes are generally smaller and simpler than eukaryotes.

A line of human cells, originally derived from a cervical cancer patient, Henrietta Lacks, that are widely used in scientific research.

Cells grown in a controlled environment outside of an organism, used for studying cell behavior, drug testing, and other research purposes.