U.S. Congress: Senate and House of Representatives

• The Senate is designed to represent states equally, while the House represents the people.
• Debate in the House (435 members) is more formal than in the Senate (100 members).
• Under the Articles of Confederation, each state had one vote, and a majority required 9 out of 13 votes.
• In 1787, the Great Compromise combined the New Jersey and Virginia plans, creating a bicameral legislature.

Senate

• The Senate is the upper house with equal representation for each state.
• Members tend to hold less extreme ideological views due to representing a diverse statewide constituency.
• Candidates must be at least 30 years old and a U.S. citizen for at least 9 years.
• Senators serve 6-year terms with no time limits.
• The 17th Amendment allowed for direct election of senators by the people.
• Every two years, one-third of the Senate seats are up for reelection.

House of Representatives

• The House of Representatives is the lower house, with representation based on population.
• House members are reelected every 2 years, with all 435 seats up for reelection.
• Candidates must be at least 25 years old and a U.S. citizen for at least 7 years.
• Members tend to have more powerful ideological political views.

Article 1

• Article 1 of the Constitution outlines the legislative branch.
• The legislative branch was the primary concern of the founders, making Article 1 the longest and most detailed.
• Congress has the power to declare war.
• Section 8 of Article 1 contains the Enumerated Powers of Congress.

Enumerated Powers

• Article 1, Section 8, Clause 1: Congress has the power to create a federal budget and levy taxes.
• Article 1, Section 8, Clause 2: Congress has the power to borrow money.
• Article 1, Section 8, Clause 4: Congress can establish rules for naturalization.
• Article 1, Section 8, Clause 5: Congress has the power to coin money.
• Article 1, Section 8, Clause 9: Congress can establish federal courts and jurisdictions below the Supreme Court.
• Article 1, Section 8, Clause 11: Congress has the power to declare war.
• Article 1, Section 8, Clause 12: Congress can support a National Army through funding.
• Article 1, Section 8, Clause 13: Congress can support a Navy through funding.
• Article 1, Section 8, Clause 18: Congress can enact laws necessary and proper for executing its powers
• Congress makes federal law through the joint effort of the House and Senate.
• Amendments can grant power to Congress, such as the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments granting Congress the power to enforce those amendments.

Oversight Committees

• Oversight Committees can recommend impeachment of federal officials.
• They review ethical or legal challenges to government actions.
• They conduct financial audits of agency spending.
• They hold public hearings on agency actions.

Oversight

• Oversight is the constitutional responsibility of Congress to ensure other branches (especially the executive) are acting properly.
• The founders intended for Congress to be deliberate and cautious in its actions.
• Budget bills must originate in the House.
• A bill is assigned to a committee, which holds hearings to understand the bill's contents.
• The bill must be supported and voted out of committee to go to the full chamber for a vote.
• A conference committee resolves disagreements between the House and Senate versions of a bill.
• If a bill receives majority support in one chamber, it moves to the other chamber for a vote.
• The House and Senate have separate tools to shape the legislative process.
• A simple majority is needed to pass a bill out of the majority
• Overriding a presidential veto requires a two-thirds vote in both chambers.
• Once an identical bill passes both chambers by a simple majority, it becomes law if: the President signs it; ten days pass without Presidential veto; or the President's veto is overridden by Congress.
• A surplus occurs when spending is less than revenue.
• A deficit occurs when spending is more than revenue.
• Congress has the power to borrow money.
• The House Budget Committee initiates the budget process.
• Government shutdowns can occur when there are failures in government spending

The Senate represents states equally, while the House represents the population. The Great Compromise created a bicameral legislature. Senators, directly elected, serve six-year terms, with one-third up for reelection every two years.