The Inflammatory Response

The process of inflammation begins when bacteria and other pathogens enter a wound, triggering platelets from the blood to release blood-clotting proteins at the wound site.
Mast cells secrete factors that mediate vasodilation and vascular constriction.
The production of major acute innate cytokines involved in local and systemic responses follows leukocyte activation via TLRs or danger-associated molecular pattern receptors.

Systemic chronic inflammation (SCI) refers to a prolonged and low-grade inflammatory response that can lead to various diseases, including depression, cancer, and aging.
Factors contributing to SCI include social, psychological, environmental, and biological elements.
In response to inflammation, the body undergoes metabolic and neuroendocrine changes to conserve energy and support the immune system, leading to behavioral symptoms known as "sickness behaviors."

The hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis regulates homeostasis of the immune response.
Communication between the nervous system and immune system is bi-directional, with both systems releasing chemical signals to instruct the other system's actions.
Stress can trigger the release of glucocorticoids, depressing the immune system in the short term, but leading to immune dysfunction and potential health issues if stress persists.
Chronic stress can have cumulative effects that impact the aging process and promote disease.

Skeletal and cardiac muscle is made up of muscle fibers composed of myofibrils or muscle cells.
The contractile unit of a myofibril is called a sarcomere, which is composed of long proteins including actin, myosin, and other proteins that hold them together.
When myosin binds to actin and slides it, the Z-lines are pulled closer together, resulting in muscle contraction.

The placement of the foramen magnum, the large hole on the cranium through which the spinal column passes, is more ventrally placed in bipeds than in quadrupeds.
In bipeds, the spinal column runs perpendicular to the mandible and the ground, whereas in quadrupeds, the spinal column also runs parallel to the ground.
The center of gravity is located closer to the center of the pelvis in bipeds than in quadrupeds.

Humans are capable of dissipating heat via evaporative cooling (sweat) through their skin, allowing for endurance running.
Upright posture allows for adequate oxygenation of the body while running.
Humans have adaptations such as expanded joint surfaces, trunk stabilization, and a narrow waist that enable endurance running.

Slow twitch fibers contain mitochondria to generate ATP using oxygen efficiently and are not able to generate a significant amount of force.
Fast twitch fibers are quick to fatigue and have a high threshold, being recruited or activated only when the force demands it.

Antibodies are not part of innate immunity.
Dendritic cells present antigens on their surface, triggering adaptive immunity.
Mast cells dilate blood vessels and induce inflammation through the release of histamines and heparin.
Natural killer cells kill tumor cells and virus-infected cells.
Macrophages are phagocytic cells that consume foreign pathogens and cancer cells and recruit other cells to the site of the infection.
B cells originate in the bone marrow, while T cells originate in the thymus.
Proteins produced by plasma cells after stimulation by an antigen, such as antibodies, are the functional basis of humoral immunity.

The process of inflammation begins when bacteria and other pathogens enter a wound, triggering platelets from the blood to release blood-clotting proteins at the wound site.
Mast cells secrete factors that mediate vasodilation and vascular constriction.
The production of major acute innate cytokines involved in local and systemic responses follows leukocyte activation via TLRs or danger-associated molecular pattern receptors.

Systemic chronic inflammation (SCI) refers to a prolonged and low-grade inflammatory response that can lead to various diseases, including depression, cancer, and aging.
Factors contributing to SCI include social, psychological, environmental, and biological elements.
In response to inflammation, the body undergoes metabolic and neuroendocrine changes to conserve energy and support the immune system, leading to behavioral symptoms known as "sickness behaviors."

The hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis regulates homeostasis of the immune response.
Communication between the nervous system and immune system is bi-directional, with both systems releasing chemical signals to instruct the other system's actions.
Stress can trigger the release of glucocorticoids, depressing the immune system in the short term, but leading to immune dysfunction and potential health issues if stress persists.
Chronic stress can have cumulative effects that impact the aging process and promote disease.

Skeletal and cardiac muscle is made up of muscle fibers composed of myofibrils or muscle cells.
The contractile unit of a myofibril is called a sarcomere, which is composed of long proteins including actin, myosin, and other proteins that hold them together.
When myosin binds to actin and slides it, the Z-lines are pulled closer together, resulting in muscle contraction.

The placement of the foramen magnum, the large hole on the cranium through which the spinal column passes, is more ventrally placed in bipeds than in quadrupeds.
In bipeds, the spinal column runs perpendicular to the mandible and the ground, whereas in quadrupeds, the spinal column also runs parallel to the ground.
The center of gravity is located closer to the center of the pelvis in bipeds than in quadrupeds.

Humans are capable of dissipating heat via evaporative cooling (sweat) through their skin, allowing for endurance running.
Upright posture allows for adequate oxygenation of the body while running.
Humans have adaptations such as expanded joint surfaces, trunk stabilization, and a narrow waist that enable endurance running.

Slow twitch fibers contain mitochondria to generate ATP using oxygen efficiently and are not able to generate a significant amount of force.
Fast twitch fibers are quick to fatigue and have a high threshold, being recruited or activated only when the force demands it.

Antibodies are not part of innate immunity.
Dendritic cells present antigens on their surface, triggering adaptive immunity.
Mast cells dilate blood vessels and induce inflammation through the release of histamines and heparin.
Natural killer cells kill tumor cells and virus-infected cells.
Macrophages are phagocytic cells that consume foreign pathogens and cancer cells and recruit other cells to the site of the infection.
B cells originate in the bone marrow, while T cells originate in the thymus.
Proteins produced by plasma cells after stimulation by an antigen, such as antibodies, are the functional basis of humoral immunity.