Understanding Theories in Science

Framework of the Course

• Theory is an abstract system explaining phenomena. It provides ways to interpret the world and explain why things happen. Merton’s anomie theory and structural functionalism are examples.
• Theorizing is the process of systematically formulating ideas to understand phenomena. It involves observation, questioning, and creativity, shaping research approaches.
• Science employs evidence, logic, and repeatable experiments to study nature and society. It uses observable, measurable data, and is open to refinement. Testing for vaccine safety and efficacy is an example.
• Pseudoscience presents claims like science but lacks rigorous methodology and empirical support. It uses anecdotal evidence, and is resistant to falsification (proof wrong). The debunked vaccine-autism claim is an example.
• Colonial Frameworks tie research to colonialism, where Western nations often appropriated knowledge without recognition or consent. This reinforced power hierarchies and marginalized non-Western perspectives. This Western “theft of knowledge” is a key critique.

Research and the (Re)Production of Knowledge

• Sources of Knowledge: include authority, tradition, common sense, media myths, and personal experience. Empirical social science relies on systematic observation, testing, and analysis distinguishing it from other knowledge sources.
• Science vs. Pseudoscience: Science prioritizes evidence, replicability, and falsifiability. Pseudoscience relies on anecdotal evidence, untestable claims, and resists challenges.
• Tentative Nature of Knowledge: Knowledge evolves as discoveries challenge existing ideas. The James Webb Telescope's findings are an example.
• Western Knowledge Appropriation: Historical research privileges Western perspectives, marginalizing others. Colonizers documented Indigenous practices, but dismissed them as superstition, claiming ownership without recognition.

General Research Orientations

• Deductive Research: Starts with a theory to form and test hypotheses. For example, testing if higher education reduces income inequality.

• Inductive Research: Starts with observations to identify, then develop theory. For example, studying community responses to climate change and creating a theory on local adaptation.

• Epistemology: Studies knowledge acquisition. Key approaches include Positivism (observable phenomena, natural science methods) and Interpretivism (subjective meanings in social contexts).

• Ontology: Examines the nature of reality. Key viewpoints, Objectivism (reality independent of perception) and Constructivism (reality shaped by social interactions and perceptions).

• Quantitative Research: Focuses on numbers, seeking generalizable findings, often linking to positivist approaches and deductive reasoning.

• Qualitative Research: Focuses on rich, detailed understanding of context and experiences, frequently tying into interpretivist approaches and inductive reasoning.

Critical Perspectives

• Feminism: Emphasizes situated knowledges (partial, context-specific knowledge) to address biases in traditional research and advocate for inclusivity. Intersectionality, highlighting overlapping oppressions (racism, sexism, classism), is central to Feminist theory.
• Critical Race Theory: Challenges systemic racism scrutinizing how laws and institutions perpetuate racial inequality.

Research Ethics

• Ethical Principles: Respect for dignity, informed consent, confidentiality, minimizing harm, ensuring justice, and inclusiveness are key elements of ethical research.
• Historical Examples: The Stanford Prison Experiment and the Milgram Experiment highlight ethical concerns regarding participant distress, power dynamics and obedience to authority; these illustrate the need for robust ethical review in social science research.

Sampling

• Sampling: Choosing a subset of a population for study.
• Probability Sampling: Uses random selection methods.
  • Simple random, systematic, stratified, and multi-stage cluster sampling are examples.
• Non-Probability Sampling: Doesn't use random selection (e.g., convenience, snowball, quota sampling). This reduces generalizability.
• Sampling Issues: Non-response bias, sampling error, and lack of diversity are potential challenges to robust research design.

Quantitative Research

• Key concepts: Reliability (measurement consistency), validity (measuring what intended), and operationalization (defining abstract concepts for measurement).
• Correlation vs. Causation: Correlation shows relationship, not necessarily causation; one variable impacting another is causation.

Qualitative Research

• Approach: Inductive, focusing on context and meaning.
• Evaluation Criteria: Credibility (trustworthiness), transferability (applicability to other contexts) are critical for qualitative research.
• Critiques: Subjectivity, difficulty of replication, and limited generalizability are potential weaknesses.

This quiz explores the fundamental concepts of theory, theorizing, and the distinctions between science and pseudoscience. It also addresses the implications of colonial frameworks in research. Test your understanding of these critical topics in social sciences.