Understanding Stress and Coping Mechanisms

• Stress involves Anxiety and tension, as well as Physiological symptoms
• Stress can be triggered by positive and negative occurances

Stressor

• A stressor could be a perceived threat or challenge

Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)

• The Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) was created in 1967 by Holmes & Rahe,
• The SRRS is 43 Life Change Units (LCU).
• An individuals scores on this scale are predictive of becoming sick

Interpretation

• The Interpretation fails to compensate for interpretation of events, and the ability to cope with said events

Types of stressors

• Stressors are divided into Major Life Events, Traumatic events, and Daily hassles

Two-part appraisal process

• Lazarus & Folkman introduced a two-part appraisal process in 1984
• Involves Primary appraisal, and Secondary appraisal which involves Threat and Challenge

Emotion-focused coping

• Emotion-focused coping reduces negative emotions caused by stressors

Problem-focused coping

• Problem-focused coping focuses on strategies to deal with a stressor directly
• The effectiveness of a coping response depends on the nature of the stressor and the coping resources of the specific individual

General Adaption Syndrome (GAS)

• General Adaption Syndrome (GAS) is a model of the body's response to a prolonged stressor
• First phase of GAS is the Alarm phase, or the Fight-or-Flight response (Cannon, 1932)
• Second phase of GAS is the Resistance phase
• Third phase of GAS is the Exhaustion phase or Diseases of adaptation

Stress vs Immune System

• Prolonged stress can impair immune system functioning

Stress and the Body

• When stressed the hypothalamus activates the adrenal medulla
• The adrenal medulla (controlled by the ANS) releases adrenaline & noradrenaline into the bloodstream
• Adrenaline & noradrenaline primes the body for 'fight or flight' by reinforcing the pattern of sympathetic activation (increased heart rate & blood pressure)
• Higher brain centres activate the hypothalamus
• The hypothalamus releases corticotrophin (CRF)
• The pituitary gland releases adrenocorticotrophic (ACTH)
• The adrenal cortex releases corticosteroids so the liver releases energy and the immune system is supressed

Tend and Befriend Response

• Sex can influence response to stressors
• Taylor et al. (2000) introduced Tend (i.e., nurture) to befriend (i.e., seek support from others)
• Women are likely to react to stressors with a tend and befriend response

Evolutionary perspective

• Evolutionary perspective of the tend and befriend response occurs more often in women
• Women have more to lose from engaging in a fight-or-flight response and will release Oxytocin.

PTSD

• Posttraumatic stress disorder can occur in individuals older than six years if they experience one or more traumatic event

Exposure to PTSD event

• Direct experience of the triggering event
• Witnessing the event
• Learning that the event happened to someone close
• Repeated or extreme indirect exposure to aversive details of the event(s)

Intrusion symptoms

• To be diagnosed with PTSD an idividual has to show Distressing memories, Distressing dreams, Dissociative reactions (i.e., flashbacks), Psychological distress, and Physiological reactions

PTSD Stimuli

• Persistent avoidance of stimuli associated with the traumatic event(s)
• Common stimuli include: Memories, Thoughts, Feelings, External reminders

PTSD Mood

• Negative alterations in cognitions or mood
• Evidenced by Forgetting certain aspects of the traumatic event(s), Negative beliefs about oneself, others, or the world, Cognitive distortions about the cause of the traumatic event(s), Persistent negative affect, Lack of interest in pre-trauma activities, Detachment or estrangement from others, and Inability to experience positive emotions

PTSD Reactivity

• Individuals show Alterations in arousal and reactivity, irritability or anger, reckless or self-destructive behavior, hypervigilance, exaggerated startle response, attentional problems, and sleep problems

Specifying PTSD

• With dissociative symptoms (i.e., derealization or depersonalization)
• Or with delayed expression

Etiology of PTSD

• It is important to note not everyone who experiences a traumatic event develops PTSD
• Women are approx. two to three times more likely to develop PTSD with greater symptom severity
• The severity of the trauma event is a predictive factor when looking at who develops PTSD
• Genetic factors predispose individuals to PTSD
• People who develop PTSD have an overly reactive stress response
• After exposure to a traumatic event, these stress response routes become even more overreactive

Reactive Impairment

• The chronic over-reactivity of the stress response may cause impairments in the brain's stress circuit.
• This can affect the: Amygdala, Prefrontal cortex, and Hippocampus
• Certain childhood experiences increase the risk of developing PTSD in the aftermath of trauma
• Poor or lack of social support may contribute to the development of PTSD