Understanding Sentence Structure in 'The Structure of English'

Latin Grammar = William Lily Bref Grammar for English = William Bullokar English Grammar = William Lily Earliest English grammars precursor = William Lily

Latin grammar learned in schools = Until the 17th century English grammars = No existence until end of 16th century Bullokar's grammar = 5 cases of nouns Prescientific grammar age = End of 16th century till about 1900

Latin grammar = Study of Latin Lily's Latin Grammar = Arrangement of material Bullokar's grammar = Structure of English Earliest English grammars precursor = Presentation of English forms

First period (17th - 19th centuries) = Only one kind of grammar in use at a time Second period (20th century) = Several types of grammatical descriptions used and developed in parallel

Prenormative grammars = Described many grammatical phenomena of English Prescriptive (normative) grammars = Stated strict rules of grammatical usage Scientific grammar = Both descriptive and explanatory Structural grammar = Took different directions in its development such as Descriptive Linguistics, Transformational Grammar, Generative Grammar, Generative Semantics

R. Lowth = Short Introduction to English Grammar Lindley Murray = English Grammar Adapted to the Different Classes of Learners H. Sweet = A New English Grammar, Logical and Historical O. Jespersen = A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles

Ferdinand de Saussure = Advanced main ideas of structural approach to language Leonard Bloomfield = Contributed to the main ideas of structural approach to language H. Whitehall = Authored 'Structural Essentials of English' N. Chomsky = Authored 'Syntactic Structures' and 'Language and Mind'

Ferdinand de Saussure = Cours de linguistique generale H. Whitehall = 'Structural Essentials of English' Z. S. Harris = 'Methods in Structural Linguistics' N. Chomsky = 'Syntactic Structures'

Communicative grammar = Gaining popularity since the 1980s, systematically relates grammatical structures to meanings, uses, and situations of communication

Prague School = Mathesius, Trnka, Trubetzkoy, Jakobson Copenhagen School = Louis Hjelmslev and Viggo Brondal American School = E. Sapir and L. Bloomfield None of the above = Saussure and Chomsky

Binary privative opposition = One member of the contrastive pair is characterized by the presence of a certain feature that is lacking in the other member Componential analysis = An approach which makes use of semantic components treated as binary opposites distinguished by pluses and minuses Synchronic plane = Studying language at a given moment of its existence Linguistic sign = Bilateral with both form and meaning

Prague School's technique for determining phonological units = Use of oppositions (contrasts) of speech sounds that change the meaning of words Glossematics = Developing a sort of linguistic calculus to serve linguistics like mathematics served physical sciences Descriptive linguistics = Describing language structures based on formal criteria and distribution of linguistic units Transformational Grammar = Further development by the American School

Roman Jacobson = Used privative opposition for describing Russian language's morphological categories L. Hjelmslev = Published 'Prolegomena to a Theory of Language' and developed Glossematics Ch. C. Fries = Further developed ideas about language as a system of signals N. Chomsky = Further developed ideas from the American School

Objective study of language based on structural characteristics and contextual environment = L. Bloomfield Language as a system in the synchronic plane = Ferdinand de Saussure Use of linguistic forms to communicate, with meanings scientifically defined through perfection in psychology and physiology = L. Bloomfield Studying half-known and unknown languages of American Indian tribes = Descriptive Linguistics

Phoneme = Distinguished from other phonemes by a set of distinctive (differential) features Morphological categories = Described using privative opposition Semantic features or sense components in componential analysis = Treated as binary opposites distinguished by pluses and minuses None of the above = [p] is distinguished from [b] as a voiceless sound

Morpheme = The smallest meaningful units into which a wordform may be divided Word = The principal and basic unit of the language system Stem = The part of a word which remains unchanged throughout its paradigm Allomorph = The representations of the given morpheme, or the morpheme phonetic variants

Number = Singular and plural forms in nouns Tense = Past, present, and future forms in verbs Aspect = Continuous, perfect, and simple forms in verbs Mood = Indicative, subjunctive, and imperative forms in verbs

Synthetic types = Imply changes in the body of the word without any auxiliary words Analytical types = Consist in using an auxiliary word to express some grammatical category of another word Derivational affixes = Include prefixes and suffixes modifying root-morphemes Inflectional morphemes = Carry only grammatical meaning such as person, number, case, tense, etc.

Zero-morpheme = The term used to indicate the absence of a morpheme indicating a certain grammatical meaning Paradigmatic relations = Exist between elements of the system of language outside the strings where they occur Categorial grammatical meanings = The most general meanings rendered by language and expressed by systematical correlations of word-forms Inflections = Endings carrying only grammatical meaning such as person, number, case, tense, etc.

Nouns = Study of number, case, gender, etc. Verbs = Study of tense, aspect, voice, mood, etc. Adjectives = Study of degrees of comparison and attributive use Pronouns = Study of person, number, case distinctions

Syntax = Studies syntagmatic relations of words in phrases and sentences Morphology = Deals with the paradigmatic relations of word-forms Paradigmatic relations = Exist between elements outside the strings where they occur Phonemes = Smallest distinctive sound units within a language

Phonetics (phonology) = Study of speech sounds Lexicology = Study of words and vocabulary Grammar = Study of grammatical structure of language Morphology = Study of forms of words

Phoneme = Linguistic unit without inherent meaning, but with a differential function Morpheme = Expresses abstract 'significative' meanings used as constituents for forming concrete 'nominative' meanings Word = Used to express referential meanings Phrase = Unit used to express referential meanings at a higher level than words

Deep structure = Abstract underlying structure holding all syntactic information for sentence interpretation Surface structure = Structure including all syntactic features required to convert a sentence into spoken or written version Transformational rules = Rules changing one structure into another through moving, inserting, deleting, and replacing items Syntactic pattern = Pattern used to establish set of kernel sentences and order of transformation rules

Phrases and sentences = Fall under syntax, referring to immediate linear relations in segmental sequences Analytical word-forms = Formations like 'have been found', 'has been raining' falling under morphology Set phrases = Subject of phraseology, a branch of lexicology Paradigmatic relations = Dealt with in morphology, concerning relations of morphemes and words

Distributional method = Analysis technique focusing on the total environments in which a linguistic unit occurs IC-method (the method of immediate constituents) = Technique identifying constituent elements immediately entering into any meaningful combination Transformational-Generative Grammar = Specific type of T-Grammar stipulating deep and surface structures, along with transformational rules T-Grammar = Development from Descriptive School introducing transformation understood as transition from one syntactic pattern to another

Phonological system = Basis for all speaking, consisting of phonemes Lexical system = Consists of material units like words, word-groups, sentences, and supra-phrasal unities for expressing referential meanings Grammatical system = Includes morphology and syntax for studying forms and grammatical structure Supra-phrasal unities = Higher units used to express referential meanings

Noun = Words expressing properties of objects Adjective = Words pointing to things and properties without naming them Verb = Words characterized by the categorial meaning of process expressed by both finite and non-finite forms Adverb = Words with the categorical meaning of the secondary property and characterized by the forms of the degrees of comparison

A. I. Smirnitsky and B. A.Ilyish = Development of the three-criteria characterization of the parts of speech Blokh M. Y. = Author of 'A Course in Theoretical English Grammar' Бархударов Л. С. = Author of 'Очерки по морфологии современного английского языка' Иванова И. П. = Co-author of 'Теоретическая грамматика современного английского языка'

Prepositions = Functional words with a partial nominative value Conjunctions = Functional words with a partial nominative value Articles = Functional words with a partial nominative value Particles = Functional words with a partial nominative value

Notional words = Words having a full nominative value Functional words = Words identified based on the three criteria: meaning, form, and function Quantifiers = Words considered as 'hybrids' with features of pronouns, numerals, and adjectives Statives = Words making up a separate part of speech or a specific group within the class of adjectives

Noun = Categorical meaning of 'thingness', changeable forms of number and case, and functions as subject, object, or predicative Adjective = Words expressing properties of objects, including qualitative and relative forms and degrees of comparison Verb = Categorial meaning of process, changeable forms including person, number, tense, aspect, voice, and mood Adverb = Categorical meaning of secondary property, forms of degrees of comparison, and functions as adverbial modifiers

Quantifiers = 'Hybrids' with features of pronouns, numerals, and adjectives Statives = Either making up a separate part of speech or a specific group within the class of adjectives Modal words = Considered as adverbs by nature Particles = 'Hybrids' with features of different word types

Nouns = Functions as subject, object, or predicative Adjectives = Functions as attribute or predicative Verbs = Finite form functions as predicate; non-finite forms perform other functions like subject, object, or adverbial modifier Adverbs = Functions as various adverbial modifiers

Nouns = Number and case are changeable forms Verbs = 'Person', 'number', 'tense', 'aspect', 'voice', and 'mood' are changeable forms Adjectives = 'Degrees of comparison' are typical changeable forms Adverbs = 'Degrees of comparison' for qualitative adverbs are changeable forms

Personal pronouns = 'Deixis' as the common feature Possessive pronouns = 'Deixis' as the common feature Demonstrative pronouns = 'Deixis' as the common feature Interrogative pronouns = 'Deixis' as the common feature

B. A. Ilyish = 'Statives' can be considered as making up a separate part of speech or as a specific group within the class of adjectives M. Y. Blokh = 'Statives' can be considered as making up a separate part of speech or as a specific group within the class of adjectives