Understanding Psychological Disorders: Models and History

• Psychological disorders are characterized by distress, dysfunction, deviance, and danger.

Historical Perspectives on Mental Illness

• Three models have influenced the understanding of psychological disorders: biological, psychoanalytic, and behavioral/cognitive.

The Biological/Medical Model

• Mental disorders stem from biological factors like brain abnormalities, neurotransmitter imbalances (e.g., serotonin, dopamine), and genetic influences.
• Hippocrates & Galen's Four Humors Theory stated that an imbalance in bodily fluids caused mental illness.
• In the 19th century, the discovery that syphilis caused severe mental deterioration supported the biological model.
• Biological treatments include medications, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), and psychosurgery.

The Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Model

• Freud's theory includes the id (primitive desires), ego (rational decision-making), and superego (moral standards).
• Disorders arise from unresolved unconscious conflicts, often from childhood.
• Treatment involves free association, dream analysis, and transference.

The Behavioral & Cognitive Models

• Behaviorism states that behavior is learned through conditioning.
• Cognitive therapy states that thoughts influence emotions and behavior.

Important Terms

• Prevalence is the total number of cases in a population at a given time.
• Incidence is the number of new cases over a specific time period.
• Prognosis is the expected course and outcome of a disorder and the course is how the disorder progresses.
• Chronic disorders are lifelong, episodic disorders have periodic flare-ups, and time-limited disorders resolve on their own.

Learning Theories: Classical vs. Operant Conditioning

• Classical conditioning involves learning through association (Pavlov, Watson).
• In classical conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) leads to an unconditioned response (UCR).
• In classical conditioning, a conditioned stimulus (CS) leads to a conditioned response (CR) after conditioning.
• Ivan Pavlov's experiment: UCS (Food) -> UCR (Salivation), CS (Bell) -> CR (Salivation).
• B.F. Skinner's operant conditioning states that behavior is shaped by reinforcement and punishment.
• Positive reinforcement adds a reward to increase behavior, and negative reinforcement removes something aversive to increase behavior.
• Positive punishment adds an aversive stimulus to decrease behavior, and negative punishment removes something desirable to decrease behavior.

Neurological Factors

• Brain structures, genetics and neurotransmitters influence disorders.

Main Branches of the Nervous System

• The central nervous system (CNS) includes the brain and spinal cord.
• The peripheral nervous system (PNS) connects the CNS to the body.
• The autonomic nervous system (ANS) regulates involuntary functions.
• The sympathetic nervous system activates the fight-or-flight response.
• The parasympathetic nervous system restores the body to a calm state.

Key Brain Structures & Functions

• Frontal Lobe: Decision-making, impulse control.
• Parietal Lobe: Sensory processing.
• Temporal Lobe: Memory, language.
• Occipital Lobe: Vision.
• The amygdala regulates emotion and fear response.
• The hippocampus is responsible for memory formation.

Key Concepts

• Heritability measures the degree to which genetics contribute to a disorder.
• The diathesis-stress model states that a disorder develops when a genetic predisposition interacts with environmental stress.
• Learned helplessness (Seligman): Repeated failure leads to passivity and depression.

DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders)

• The DSM-5 is a standard classification system for diagnosing disorders.
• Reliability refers to the consistency of a diagnosis or test.
• Validity refers to whether a test measures what it claims to measure.
• Standardization ensures uniform procedures in testing and diagnosis.

Clinical Interviews

• Structured interviews use pre-set questions (high reliability).
• Unstructured interviews are open-ended (more flexibility but less reliability).

Psychological Assessment Methods

• Projective tests are open-ended (e.g., Rorschach, TAT).
• Objective tests are standardized (e.g., MMPI).
• Reactivity is when behavior changes because a person knows they are being observed.

Correlational vs. Experimental Research

• Correlation measures the relationship between variables but does not imply causation.
• Experimental research manipulates variables to determine cause-and-effect.

Quasi-Experiments

• Quasi-experiments are used when random assignment is not possible.

Key Experimental Terms

• The independent variable (IV) is the manipulated variable.
• The dependent variable (DV) is the measured outcome.
• Random assignment ensures equal participant distribution.
• Blind designs reduce experimenter and participant bias.

Fear vs. Anxiety vs. Panic

• Fear is a present-focused response to immediate threat like a bear attack..
• Anxiety is a future-focused worry about possible threats, like worrying about up coming exams
• A panic attack is a sudden, intense fear with physical symptoms.

Types of Anxiety Disorders

• Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): Excessive worry about various aspects of life, often with physical symptoms.
• Panic Disorder & Agoraphobia: Recurrent unexpected panic attacks, leading to avoidance of situations where escape might be difficult.
• Specific Phobias: Unreasonable fears triggered by specific objects or situations.
• Social Anxiety Disorder: Excessive concern about embarrassment and scrutiny in social situations.

PTSD & Trauma-Related Disorders

• PTSD: A condition triggered by experiencing or witnessing traumatic events.
• PTSD symptoms include nightmares, flashbacks, emotional numbness, and irritability.
• Causal factors include being female, family history, prolonged trauma, and low social support.
• Cognitive Processing Therapy (CPT): Modifies negative interpretations of the traumatic event.
• Prolonged Exposure (PE): Repeated recounting of the traumatic event to reduce emotional response.
• Medications: Antidepressants may offer slight improvement.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

• Obsessions: Repetitive, intrusive thoughts or images that cause anxiety.
• Compulsions: Repetitive behaviors or mental acts performed to reduce discomfort.
• Exposure and Response Prevention (ERP): Exposes individuals to anxiety-provoking stimuli without compulsive behaviors.
• Medications: SSRIs like Prozac, and in severe cases, neurosurgical options like cingulotomy.
• Integrated Approaches: Combining pharmacotherapy with behavioral interventions yields optimal outcomes.

Explore the characteristics and historical perspectives of psychological disorders, including biological, psychoanalytic, and behavioral/cognitive models. Examining the biological model, it highlights factors like brain abnormalities and genetic influences. Freud's psychoanalytic theory is discussed.