Understanding Kinship and Descent

• Kinship is a social institution referring to relations formed between members of society.
• It explains the nature and reason for different types of bonds within society.

Kinship by Blood

• People who are related by blood can be traced to their ancestry through consanguineal kinship.
• Consanguineal kinship is the most basic and general form of relations, achieved by birth or blood affinity.

Descent

• Descent refers to the biological relationship between parent and offspring.

Lineage

• Lineage traces one's descent through a specific line.

Forms of Descent

• Unilineal descent traces through either the maternal or paternal line.
• Matrilineal descent traces through the female line.
• Patrilineal descent traces through the male line.
• Bilateral descent traces through both the mother and father.
• Lineal descent refers to having a direct family relationship or affinity.

Kinship by Marriage

• Affinal Kinship is a type of relation developed when a marriage occurs.

Marriages

• Endogamy is "compulsory marriage" practiced by ethnic, religious, and aristocratic groups.
• It involves marriage within one's own family, clan, or cultural group.
• Exogamy is "Out-Marriage", where an individual is required to marry outside their own group, community, or social class.

Monogamy

• "Mono" means single, and "gamos" means marriage, thus monogamy is being married to one spouse.

Polygamy

• "Poly" means many, thus polygamy is the practice of having more than one spouse.
• Polygyny is when a man has multiple female partners.
• Polyandry is when a woman has multiple male partners.

Patrilocal Residence

• Married couples stay in the house of the husband's relatives or near the husband's kin.

Matrilocal Residence

• Couples live with the wife's relatives or near the wife's kin.

Biolocal/Bilocal Residence

• The newlywed couple stays with either the husband's or wife's kin.

Arranged Marriage

• Marriage partners are arranged by the parents.

Referred Marriage

• Matchmakers help single friends or relatives find their possible husband or wife, or refers them to another man or woman.

Post-Marital Residence Rules

• Neolocal Residence: Each spouse leaves their family of origin and forms a new household.
• It develops as a nuclear family and is a basic pattern in modern industrial societies.

Patrilocal Residence Detail

• The man remains in his father's household, the wife leaves her family to move in with him.
• Children are added to the paternal unit, resulting in a Patrilocal Extended Family.
• This family includes three or more generations of related men living together to form a shallow patrilineage.
• Virilocal Rule states the wife must move to her husband's residence.

Matrilocal Residence Detail

• The woman remains in her mother's household, the husband leaves his family to move in with her.
• Children are added to the maternal unit, resulting in a Matrilocal Extended Family.
• This family includes three or more generations of related women living together to form a shallow matrilineage.
• Uxorilocal Rule states the husband must move to his wife's residence.

Matrifocal Residence

• It involves a woman and her children, and daughter's children, without a coresident husband or other adult men.
• Results from economic conditions in which a man is unable to support a family.

Avunculocal Residence

• Involves one or more elder men (uncle), sister's son, and the wives and underage children of all the married men.

Avunculocal Residence Steps:

• A married woman lives in her husband's household (Virilocal Rule).
• Children are raised and mature.
• Male children must relocate to the mother's brother's (uncle) household.

Ambilocal Residence

• The married couple decides whether to join either the husband's or the wife's household of origin.
• They may reside with either spouse's father or mother, results in an Ambilocal Extended Family.

Natalocal Residence

• Each partner remains with their own families of residences after marriage. If children remain in their mother's household, it results in the formation of Domestic Matrilineages. All male and female residents belong.

Compadrazgo

• "Godparenthood" is a ritualized form of forging co-parenthood or family.
• It is a relationship between the child's biological parents, their children, and people close to the parent but not related.

Family

• The family is the most basic unit of social organization.

What links the family together

• Marriage
• Blood relations
• Adoption
• Members of the household are related to a specified degree either through blood, adoption or marriage.
• A family consists of at least two members, and members of a family must be related.
• A family cannot comprise more than one household.

Types of Families

• Nuclear Family: United by social ties, consisting of two adults and their socially recognized children.
• Extended Family: Members who go beyond the nuclear family.
• Blended Family: Also known as a "Step Family, Reconstituted Family, or Complex Family," where parents have children from previous marital relationships and all members stay and congregate to form a new family unit.

Household

• May consist of only one person.
• Members of a multi-person household need not be related to each other:
• It can contain one family, one or more families together with one or more non-related persons, or entirely non-related persons.
• Nuclear Household: Consists entirely of a single family nucleus.
• Extended Household: May be a married couple with or without children, a father with one or more unmarried children, or a mother with one or more unmarried children.
• Reconstituted Families are also referred to as "Blended Families", and involve joining two adults via marriage. These may include: Single Family Nucleus and other persons related, two or more family nuclei related to each other (plus other people related to at least one family), or two or more people related to each other.

"Matrifocal Residence"

• Geographical dispersion of a family due to the migration of one or more members.

Family Hood

• A feeling of collective welfare and unity by those that live separately across the national border.

Types of Household

• One-Person: One person makes provision for their own food and other essentials.
• Multi-Person: A group of two or more people living together, making common provision for food or other essentials.

Political Organization

• Bands and tribes are considered the simplest political system.
• Acephalous: Without a well-defined system of leadership.

Types of Political Organization

• Bands are often found in foraging societies.
• They're associated with low population densities, distribution systems based on reciprocity, and egalitarian social relations.
• Bands are formed by several families living together based on marriage and friendship affiliations.
• Members usually have a common interest or enemy and kinship by blood or affinity.

Tribes

• Acephalous political system found among horticulturists and pastoralists societies.
• It Includes a larger and more sedentary population and lacks centralized political leadership.
• Egalitarian in nature.
• Organized through the presence of pantribal associations or sodalities, such as a Council or Tribal Elders.

Chiefdoms are

• More formal and permanent political structures.
• Political authority rests with individuals.
• They rely on feasting and tribute.
• Formal leadership exists and authority rests solely on the members of a select family.
• Simple Chiefdom: Central village or community ruled by a single family.
• Complex Chiefdom: Several simple chiefdoms ruled by a single paramount chief residing in a single paramount center.
• Nation: Groups of people that share a common history, language, tradition, customs, habits, and ethnicity.

Political Legitimacy and Authority

• Legitimacy is a moral and ethical concept.
• It bestows on who possesses power the right to exercise such power.
• Authority is the power to make binding decisions and issue commands.
• It is necessary for a leader to possess authority.

Traditional Authority

• Legitimacy is derived from well-established customs, habits, and social structures.

Charismatic Authority

• Legitimacy emanates from the charisma of the individual.

Some view charismatic authority as:

• "Gift of Grace"
• Possession of "Gravitas"
• Authority derived from a higher power.

Rational-Legal/Bureaucratic Authority

• Legitimacy from formal rules promulgated by the state through its fundamental and implementing laws.

Banks

• Institutions that conduct business purely on a profit motive.

Principal Functions of a Bank

• "Banking Functions" entail accepting deposits.

Accepting deposits involves

• Banks collecting deposits from the public, categorized into:
• Savings: Encourages saving habits among the public with a low rate of interest (5% per annum). Withdrawals are allowed and subject to certain restrictions, suitable to salary and wage earners. An account can be opened in a single name or in joint names.
• Fixed: A lump sum amount deposited at one time for a specific period. There's a higher the rate of interest, varies with the period of deposit. Withdrawals are not allowed before the expiry period, suitable for those who have surplus funds.
• Current: Operated by businessmen. Withdrawals are freely allowed but no interest is paid. There are service charges, but account holders can get the benefit of an overdraft facility.
• Recurring: Operated by salaried people and petty traders. A certain sum of money is periodically deposited into the bank. Withdrawals are permitted only after the expiry of a certain period with a higher rate of interest.

Granting of Loans and Advances

• Banks advance loans to the business community and other members of the public.

Interest rates in lending

• Rate charged is higher than what it pays on deposits.
• The difference in the interest rates, lending rates, and deposit rates is its profit.

Types of Loans and Advances

• Overdraft: Given to current account holders, with no separate account maintained. A certain amount is sanctioned as an overdraft, which can be withdrawn within a certain period of time. Interest is charged on the actual amount withdrawn. An overdraft facility is granted against a collateral security and is sanctioned to businessmen and firms.
• Cash Credits: A client is allowed cash credit up to a specific limit fixed in advance. It can be given to current account holders as well as to others who do not have an account with the bank. A separate cash credit account is maintained, and interest is charged on the amount withdrawn in excess of limit. An advance is given for a longer period, and a large amount of loan is sanctioned than that of overdraft.
• Loans: Normally for short-term or medium-term. Repayment of money can be in the form of installments spread over a period of time or in a lump sum amount. Interest is charged on the actual amount sanctioned. The rate of interest may be slightly lower than overdrafts and cash credits. Normally secured against tangible assets of the company.
• Discount Bill of Exchange: Banks advance money by discounting or by purchasing bills of exchange (domestic and foreign bills). The bank pays the bill amount to the drawer or the beneficiary by deducting usual discount charges. On maturity, the bill is presented to the drawee or acceptor, and the amount is collected.

Secondary Functions of a Bank

• Also known as "Non-banking functions."

Agency Functions

• Banks act as representatives of clients to deal with other banks and institutions.

These functions include

• Transfer of funds, collection of cheques.
• Banks collect the money of cheques through the clearing section of customers as well as collect money of the bill of exchange.
• Periodic payments, such as making periodic payments in respect of electricity bills, rent, etc.
• Portfolio management, undertaking to purchase and sell the shares and debentures on behalf of clients, accordingly debits or credits the account.
• Periodic collections, like collecting salary, pension, dividend, and other periodic collections.

General Utility Functions

• Issue of Drafts and Letter of Credits: Used for transferring money from one place to another. Issues letters of credit, especially in the case of import trade, and issues traveler's cheques.
• Locker Facility: Provides safe custody of valuable documents, gold ornaments, and other valuables.
• Underwriting of Shares: Banks underwrite shares and debentures through its merchant banking division.
• Dealing in Foreign Exchange: Commercial banks are allowed by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) to deal in foreign exchange.
• Project Reports: Banks prepare project reports on behalf of its clients.
• Social Welfare Programs: Banks undertake social welfare programs such as adult literacy programs, public welfare campaigns, etc.

Corporations

• The most common form of business organizations.
• Chartered by a state and given many legal rights as an entity separate from its owners.
• Viewed as legal persons, which means they can be sued for not carrying out certain functions or responsibilities.

Corporations are characterized by:

• Limited Liability of its Owners
• Issuance of Shares of Easily Transferable Stock
• Existence as a Going Concern

Incorporation

• The process of becoming a corporation gives the company separate legal standing from its owners.
• Limited liability protects those owners from being personally liable in the event that the company is sued.
• Provides companies with a more flexible way to manage their ownership structure.

Corporation Responsibilities and Functions

• Selecting a CEO: The board of directors is responsible for selecting a Chief Executive Officer (CEO). They ensure that the management team and employees adhere to all policies and procedures instituted by the board of directors, lawyers, and the CEO and typically select management teams or executives to help them run their organizations.
• Providing Continuity: The corporation must continue to function when people are fired, leave the company, or pass away. Executives, CEO, etc. must be replaced by other competent and talented individuals.
• Managing Resources Effectively entails:
• Minimizing waste.
• Manufacturing: Procuring necessary raw materials to create products.
• Wholesale Companies: Finding suppliers.
• Corporations: Keeping products flowing to ensure they are in stock when customers need it.
• Increasing Profits: Corporations maximize shareholder's earning by selling more products and keep major costs in line (production, labor, inventory, supplies, overhead-rent, utility, etc..).
• Social Responsibilities include:
• Many sponsor events or organizations in their community.
• Employees who collect monies for various diseases or illnesses, donating, etc.
• Keeping residences safe from environmental issues.
• Apprising the community when accidents occur.
• Using greener or environmentally safe substances during the manufacturing process.

Cooperatives

• Autonomous associations of people.
• United voluntarily to meet their common economic, social, and cultural needs and aspirations.
• Jointly-owned and democratically-controlled enterprise.

Trade Unions

• Based on membership of employees in various trades, occupations, and professions.
• Representation of its members at the workplace and in the wider society.
• Advance its interest though the process of rule-making and collective bargaining

Functions of Trade Unions

• Militant Functions include:
• Achieve higher wages and better working conditions
• Raise the status of workers as a part of industry
• Protect labors against victimization and injustice.
• Fraternal Function:
• Generate self-confidence among workers.
• Encourage sincerity and discipline among workers.
• Provide opportunities for promotion and growth.
• Protect women workers against discrimination.

Social Functions

• Welfare activities provided to improve the quality of work-life, such as Organization of Mutual Fund and Credit Societies for Providing Housing.
• Cooperative stores.
• Cultural Programs.
• Banking and medical facilities.
• Training for women.
• Education of Members in All Aspects of Their Working Life
• Improvement of their civic life.
• Awareness in the environment.
• Enhancement of their knowledge about issues.
• Statutory and other rights and responsibilities.
• Worker's participation in management.
• Scheme and procedure for redressing their grievances.
• Assists the government in implementing the Workers' Education Scheme.
• Publication of Periodicals, Newsletters, or Magazines
• Making members aware of union policy and stand on certain principal issues and personnel matters.
• Research provides updated information to union negotiators at the bargaining table
• More practical than academic.
• Concerns problems relating to daily affairs of the union.
• Research Activities:
• Collection and analysis of wages is performed.
• Preparation of background notes for court cases and position papers for union officials.
• Collection and analysis of macro data.

Political Functions

• Affiliating the union with a political party
• Helps them enroll members, collect donations, and seek help during strikes and lockouts.

International Organizations

• Established by formal political agreements.
• Recognized by law in their member countries.
• Not treated as a resident institutional units of the countries.
• Plays a central role in defining and reinforcing how the global economy works.
• Three Principal Bodies: World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Trade Organization (WTO)

World Bank

• Set up to the help underdeveloped world.
• Integrate the poor countries into the international economy.

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

• Helps stabilize currency exchange rates between nations.
• Come to the aid of countries with temporary liquidity needs.

World Trade Organization (WTO)

• Determines and enforces the rules regulating international trade.

Transnational Advocacy Groups

• Advocates of a principled cause, ideas, and values (human rights or environment).
• Do not work alone nor they are limited by national boundaries.

Development Agencies

• Established and supports sustainability programs for the community.
• Help create and support economic growth within a specified city, region, or state.
• Provides necessary resources and assistance.

Nonmarket Institutions

• Reciprocity, transfer, and redistribution.
• Does not entail the exchange of cash for the rendering of service or provision of goods.

Reciprocity

• Exchange of goods or labor. Direct barter or simultaneous exchange of goods, or gift exchange. Return for goods given or labor rendered is delayed.

Transfer

• Entails a redistribution of income.
• Not matched by the actual exchange of goods and services.

Redistribution

• Combination of the features of transfer and reciprocity.
• Economic exchange involves the collection of goods from members, pooling these goods, then redistributing the goods among the same members.

Market Institutions

• Type of economic system.
• Allows the free flow of goods between and among private individuals.
• Very limited participation from the government.

Invisible Hand

• Integrates both the idea of self-interest and competition.
• Brings about socially optimum results even in the absence of government intervention.

Market

• Mechanism that brings buyers and sellers together for the desired transaction.

Prices

• A signaling device to indicate the value of goods or services.

Specialization

• Requirement for a market economy.
• Ability to produce goods and services efficiently.

Human Specialization

• Division of labor.
• Contributes to efficiency by taking advantage of the differences in every person's abilities.

Barter

• Swapping of goods for goods.
• Traditional means of exchange.

Market Transaction

• Parties who sell their goods and services in exchange for cash.

Market Economy

• Production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.

Free-Market Economy

• The price of goods or services is determined by the forces of supply and demand.

State-Market Relationships

• The state, through the government, regulates prices to protect the interests of the consuming public.
• Basic Commodities such as food are subject to price ceilings.
• The price of Electricity and Mobile Services are subjected to government regulation.

Labor

• Considered a commodity.
• Sellers of the service are the workers.
• Consumers are factories and producers.

State

• Comes in to regulate prices of service.
• Exercises a monopoly of violence or legitimate control over the use of force within its territory.
• Minimum Wage is determined by a regional wage. It indicates the blow which no employer would be allowed to pay their worker.

Command Economy

• Socialist economy.
• Government takes over the functions of the market in producing, distributing essential goods and services.
• Relies on central government.

Taxes

• Compulsory contributions to government coffers.
• Normally levied on: Worker's Income, Business Profits,Consumption of Goods and Services.
• To raise revenues for government spending.

Market and Economic Organizations

• Include the corporate environmental users, Financial institutions such as banks, etc.
• Provide funds to finance the implementation of policy through the development projects and programs by the government as well as the private sector.

Banks

• Financial institutions that lend money to both public and private organizations

Corporation

• A broad category of non-state organizations.
• Represents a company or group of people.
• Engages in lawful activity about a public function.

Stock Corporation

• Ownership is through stockholders who own particular shares.

Nonstock Corporation

• Owned by members that join the organization.

Cooperative or Coop

• Autonomous association.
• Voluntary towards the attainment of common economic, social, and cultural needs or aspirations.

Trade or Labor Union

• Organization of workers.
• Protect the welfare of its members.
• Negotiates collectively with employers for better compensation, etc.

Civil Society Organizations

• Academic and Science-Based Organizations Universities, schools, colleges Private pooling firms.
• Private think tanks and consultancy groups.

Mass Media

• Print, radio, television.

Religious Organization

• Organized religion seen in the church and congregation

Nongovernmental Organization

• Third-party mediating organizations.

People's Organization

• Grassroots-based organizations composed of people who are really in the community and directly involved.

International Organization

• Established by a treaty or other instrument.
• Governed by international law.
• Possessing its own international legal personality.

Examples of International Organizations

• North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), United Nations (UN), World Health Organizations (WHO).

Transnational Advocacy Group (TAO)

• Self-organized advocacy groups undertaking voluntary actions across state borders.
• Focus on their pursuit is what they deem the wider public interest.
• Nonstate Actors and NGOS.
• Collection of individuals or groups characterized by their fluid and open relations with each other.
• United by their commitment to work and defend certain issues and causes that are relevant across several nations.

Development Agencies

• Formed as a response to crises such as way damage and industrial decline.
• With hope of stimulating economic development, post-war.

Functions of Educations Towards Individuals

• Development of Inborn Potentialities. Helps to develop inborn potentialities of a child.
• Modifying Behavior. Modify the past behavior through learning and through a different agency of education.
• Holistic Development. All-round development of child-physical, mental, social, emotional, and spiritual.
• Preparing for the Future by getting a good-paying job where their knowledge will be utilized.
• Developing Personality through their physically, intellectually, morally, socially,aesthetically, and spiritually. Helping for Adjustability to adapt to our environment and change it through education.

Functions of Education towards Society

• Social Change and Control. Society is progressive and dynamic. Old traditions, customs, are preserved and transmitted with the situations. Keeps us abreast with the advancement in science and technology.
• Reconstruction of Experiences. Education is a life-long process is is to reconstruct the experience and adjust with the environment.
• Development of Social and Moral Values. Lack of education can lead to Narrow-Mindedness, tendency to fend for themselves at any cost. Allows moral and social values to be instilled among members of society.
• Value of giving equal opportunities in all aspects regardless of caste, creed, color, sex, and religion.

Functions of Education towards Nation

• Inculcation of Civic and Social Responsibility. Understand their rights and duties as citizens in a democratic country.
• Training for Leadership. Leadership qualities are developed when they participate in all spheres of social, political, religious, and educational activities.
• National Integration. Trains people for unity and democracy.
• Total National Development. Develops all all aspects of social, economic, cultural, spiritual, moral, educational, etc.

Health System

• Sum of all the organizations, institutions, and resources whose primary purpose is to improve health.
• Needs staff, funds, information, supplies, transport, communications, and overall guidance and direction.
• Provide services that are responsive and financially fair.

Cross-Cultural Health Systems

• Culture-Specific Syndrome and Illness. Combination of psychiatric and somatic symptoms. The body absorbs social stress and manifests symptoms of suffering and a recognizable disease that is only within a specific society or culture. A health problem with a collection of signs and symptoms that is restricted/associated to a particular culture or a limited number of cultures. Social factors such as stress, fear or shock are often the underlying causes in the biophysical symptoms, and culture-specific syndromes can be fatal.
• Examples:
• Nervous Attack (Hispanics): From evil spirits
• Amok (Malaysians, Laotians, Filipinos, Polynesians, Papua New Guineans, Puerto Ricans): Outburst of violence
• Brain Fag (African Americans): Problem with concentration and thinking
• Ghost Sickness (American Indians): Weakness, dizziness, fainting, anxiety, hallucinations, confusion and loss of appetite, from the action of witches and evil forces. Wind or Cold Illness (Hispanics, Asians): Fear of cold and wind.

Ethnomedicine

• Studies of cross-cultural health systems.
• Include topics such as perceptions of the body, culture, and disability, and change in indigenous or "traditional" healing systems.
• Non-Western Health Systems or Primitive Medicine for Western Biomedicine (WBM).
• Western Biomedicine: Offers Health approached based on modern Western science. Emphasizes technology in diagnosing and treating health problems.

Perceptions of the Body

• Western Biomedicine: Mind and body are distinct
• Ethnomedicine: Body is a bounded physical unity.

Defining and Classifying Health Problems (System of Diagnosis)

• Western Biomedicine is based on scientific understanding of Disease. Disease is a biological health problem that is objective and universal (bacteria, infection, or broken arm) and Illness is Culturally specific perceptions and experiences of a health problem.

Ethnomedicine

• Basis for labeling and classifying health problems such as cause, vector, affected body part, symptoms, or combination of these. Knowledgeable elders are keepers and pass it down through oral tradition. Based on natural, socioeconomic, psychological, or supernatural causes.

Prevention

• Based on either religious or secular beliefs. Exists cross-culturally for preventing misfortune, suffering, and illness. Examples of Ritual Health Protection Worldwide are Charms, Spells, and Sacred Strings.

Healing Systems

• Western Biomedicine: Consists of Humoral Healing which Emphasizes balance among natural elements within the body.
• Ethnomedicine: Applies Community Healing of what the Emphasizes social context as a key componentCarried out within the public domain.

Education

• Social institutions that formally socialize members of society.
• Very important support pillar in society.
• Process through which skills, knowledge, and values are transmitted from teachers to learners.
• Brings about continuity, which is an important factor for development.
• Formal Education is Based in the classroom and Provided by trained teaching and non-teaching personnel.
• Includes Approved curriculum, course outline, prescribed number of sessions, lesson, and authentic assessments and outputs.

Nonformal Education

• Organized educational activity that takes place outside a formal setup.
• Usually flexible, learner-centered, contextualized, and uses a participatory approach.

Manifest and Latent Function of Education

• Manifest (Primary/Intended Functions) are Socialization and Transmission of culture, skills, and values.
• Latent (Secondary/Unintended Functions) venues for Expanding People's Network and Ability to Work in Groups (Leader or Member).

Goals and Functions of Education in the 21st Century World

• Transmission of Cultural Heritage is through Communication and honing of knowledge, language, science, reinforced by Family.
• Selection of Social Roles and Training includes providing new experiences and offers alternatives and a wide selection of roles reinforced by Religion.
• Functions as a social control mechanism that brings recalcitrant members back to fold
• Reinforced by State/Government/Religion: Functions as a social control mechanism that brings recalcitrant members back to fold.
• Place where young people are enjoined to be creative with others reinforced by Peers/State/Family.

Health

• Cultural Constructs of Health and the Filipino Attributions of Illnesses. The Philippines has its set of language to refer to health and illness, most of which pertains to either the corporeal body or spirit.
• Usog means Discomfort brought about by a stranger or visitor.
• There are also two types of Evil Eye

1. (masamang mata)
2. (masamang hanging)

• Bughat or Binat Ailments a mother experiences after giving birth or after suffering an abortion or miscarriage.

Filipino Theories of Illness

• Physical and mental health and illnesses are viewed holistically as an equilibrium model.

Mystical Causes

• often associated with experiences or behaviors such as retribution from ancestors for unfulfilled obligations.

Personalistic Causes

• attributed to social punishment or retribution by supernatural beings.

Naturalistic Causes

• natural events, excessive stress, incompatible foods and drugs, infection, and familial Susceptibility.
• Bacterial/Viral Causes are the Effects of these entities invading the body and making the body weak and defenseless.

Cultural Health Actors

• Albularyo: General practitioner who is Knowledgeable about folkloric modalities and Usually especially versed in the use of medicinal herbs.
• Hilot: Manghihilot Specializes in techniques and treatments applicable to sprains, fractures, and musculoskeletal conditions. Nagpapaanakprenatal visits and delivering babies and Performs suob rituals.
• Mangluluop diagnostic techniques
• Medico: Ailments in a mother experiences after giving birth or after suffering an abortion or miscarriage.

Religion and Belief System

Christianity

• World's biggest religion (2.2 billion followers) whose teachings based on Jesus Christ. He Lived in the Holy Land 2,0 years ago.
• Christianity spread to most parts of the globe through its missionary activity. Christianity Believed that Jesus rose from the dead and appeared to his disciples (followers) to show everyone that there is another life with one (1), eternal, loving God.
• The symbol of the religion is the Cross, its origin is Israel (Judea) its Founder is Jesus Christ, and its sacred text is the Bible.

Islam

• 2nd most popular religion in the world (thousand million followers). Its a Complete way of life rather than a religionand Began in Arabia.
• Revealed to humanity by Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him).
• Followers are called Muslims: Only one (1) God, called Allah. Mainly followed in the Middle East, Asia, and the North of Africa.
• The symbol is Crescent Moon & Star its origin is Saudi Arabia (Mecca) its Founder is Prophet Muhammad, and its Sacred Text is the Qur'an.

Hinduism

• "Sanatana Dharma" meaning "the eternal law" which is the 3rd most popular religion (750 million followers) Originated in Northern India, near the river Indus 400 years ago.
• Its the Oldest existing religion dating to prehistoric times that is Practiced by more than 80% of India's Population. With No founder, developed out of Brahmanism and Matter of practice rather than of beliefs More about what you do, than what you believe.
• The Universal soul or God called and that There is a part of Brahman in everyone called Atman.
• Believed in Reincarnation with Soul is eternal and lives many lifetimes in one body after another and Soul is sometimes born in a human body and also animal or plant.

All forms of life

• Contains a soul : All souls have a chance to experience life in different forms and can lead to Samsara.
• Going through the cycle of repeated births and deaths(reincarnation).
• Believes that the existence of cycle is governed by Karma coming from India and has the Vedas/Upanishads.

Buddhism

• Began in Northeastern India, Based on the teachings of Siddharta Gautama 2,500 years old Followed by 350 million Buddhists worldwide and it is Main religion in many Asian countries. Teaching are about suffering and the need to rid of it.
• Believes in Nirvana the Most enlightened and blissful state one can achieve which is A state without suffering and who believed that Buddha saw the truth about what the world is like.
• Does not believe that Buddha was a god but a human being as well.
• Believed that he was important because he reached Enlightenment and chose to teach other people how to reach it too. From North East India with its Sacred Text being the Tripiṭaka.

Institutionalized Religion

• Formed by a sect and it is Not limitless and it is closed.

"Organized Religion"

• Belief systems and rituals are systematically arranged and formally established.
• Characterized by an official doctrine or dogma with World's largest religious groups which one can legally or officially affiliate oneself or not..

Separation of Church & State in the Philippines

• Art II. Sec. 6: Separation of church and state shall be inviolable. Art II. Sec. 5 Now law shall be made respecting an establishment of religion.
• Art. VI Sec. 5 (2) Party-lists representatives to represent... except the religious sector.
• Ar. IX (C) Sec. 2 (5) Religious denominations and sects cannot be a political party.

Social Stratification

Why Does Social Stratification Exist?

• Trait of Society, Not Simply a Reflection of Individual Differences. With Biological qualities do not determine one's superiority and inferiority.
• Persists Over Generations: Is Very old and present even in the small wandering bonds Universal: Happens everywhere and takes different forms across different societies.
• Consequential with a few Important Consequences such as Life Chances and Lifestyle. Involves Not Just Inequality, but Beliefs as Well because Inequality is rooted in society's philosophy. Is not uniform in all societies.

Class and Caste System

• General forms of stratification which is a Special Type of Stratification (Caste in India) that is Ancient Aryas were divided to what is known as :
• Brahmins, Kshatriyas,Vaishyas and it has a Class System (Greece and Italy), Greeks were divided into freemen and slaves Romans were divided into partisans and plebians.

Caste

• A "closed system", with a Hereditary endogamous social group of what is Ascribed on the basis of birth and Cannot advance and improve their social status with what is A "open system". Is the Dominant in modern society with Depends upon achievement and ability to use them to advantage.

Major Premises of Social Stratification

• Wealth: Material possessions defined as valuable.

Power

• Degree to which individuals or groups can impose their will on others.

Prestige

• Amount of esteem or honor.

Perspectives on Social Stratification

• Functionalism by Social inequality plays a vital role in the smooth operation of society. Is a Davis-Moore thesis. Conflict Theory
• By Disagree that social stratification is functional for society that Benefits some at the expense of others through oppressing the working force..

Social Inequality

• Unequal opportunities and rewards for different social positions or statuses.
• Maintained by those in powerful positions via institutions and social process as the Degree to which individuals or groups can impose their will on others.

Measure of Social Inequality

• Patterns of unequal access to social resources which Reflects innate differences between individuals. Is it Involuntary, or is it Involuntary with different ways Is achieved as reflected Social position can be a means of availing resources and be a Mobility through.

- Social Equality

• Desirable attribute in a democratic and civilized society. Social Capital. Ability of a collective to act together to pursue a common goal. Political Capital. Trust, goodwill, and influence possessed by a political actor.
• Symbolic Capital can be Resources that one possesses. •Source of inequality for

Types of Discrimination

• Gender and Sexual Orientation: Structural bias mainly due to cultural beliefs in favor of men.
• Ethnic Minorities are Subjected to discrimination and Suffer from dominant cultural majorities with cultural practices that are subjects of ridicule and Physical appearances and demeanor ear for them over forms of discrimination through stereotypes.
• Persons with Disabilities who are Discriminated and their physical impairment becomes basis for them to be denied equal opportunity in employment.
• Cultural Osmosis and Patterns of Change -
• Cultural Osmosis: Process of gradual or unconscious assimilation of ideas, knowledge, practices along and across cultures.
• Cultural Diffusions: Spread of culture from one group to another.
• Innovation:Process of translating new ideas into something that can create value.
• Minority adopts cultural is that majority.
• Globalization spreads information and data from a distance away. The world works as Globalizational

- Transnationalism

• Diffusions and economics is to Bases.