Cultural, Social, and Political Institutions Reviewer PDF

Cultural, Social, and Political Institutions Wednesday, 19 June 2024 11:51 am Gizmo Version: click! ~ Kinship (relationship or affinity) ~ - Social institution that refers to relations formed between members of society - Explains the nature and reason for the formation of d...

Cultural, Social, and Political Institutions Wednesday, 19 June 2024 11:51 am Gizmo Version: click! ~ Kinship (relationship or affinity) ~ - Social institution that refers to relations formed between members of society - Explains the nature and reason for the formation of different types of bonds that exist within the society -- Kinship by Blood -- - People who enter marriage and can be traced to their ancestry - "Consanguineal Kinship" - Most basic and general form of relations - Achieved by birth or blood affinity - Descent ○ Biological relationship ○ Parent and offspring - Lineage ○ Line where one's descent is traced || Forms of Descent || - Unilineal ○ Descent through either the maternal or paternal line - Matrilineal ○ Descent through the female line - Patrilineal ○ Descent through the male line - Bilateral ○ Descent through both the mother and father - Lineal: having direct family relationship or affinity --Kinship By Marriage -- - "Affinal Kinship" - Type of relations developed when a marriage occurs || Marriages || - Endogamy ○ "Compulsory Marriage" Practiced by a number of ethnic groups, religious groups, and UCSP Page 1  ○ ○ Practiced by a number of ethnic groups, religious groups, and aristocratic classes ○ marriage within one's own family, clan, or cultural group - Exogamy ○ "Out-Marriage" ○ Individual is required by society's norms and rules to marry outside of their own group, community, or social class - Monogamy ○ "Mono" - single ○ "gamos" - gamy, marriage ○ Married to one (1) spouse - Polygamy ○ "Poly" - many ○ Practice of having more than one (1) spouse - Polygyny ○ Man has multiple female partners - Polyandry ○ Woman has multiple male partners - Patrilocal ○ Married couples stay in the house of the husband's relatives or near the husband's kin - Matrilocal ○ Couples live with the wife's relatives or near the wife's kin - Biolocal/Bilocal ○ Newlywed couple stay w/ the husband OR wife's kin - Arranged Marriage ○ Marriage partners are arranged by the parents - Referred Marriage ○ Matchmakers help their single friends or relatives find their possible husband or wife ○ Refers them to another man or woman || Post-Marital Residence Rules || - Neolocal Residence Wife Husband ○ Each spouse leaves their family of origin and forms a new household ○ Develops as nuclear family ○ Basic pattern in modern industrial societies - Patrilocal Residence UCSP Page 2 - Patrilocal Residence Wife Husband Husband's Family ○ Man remains in their father's household, wife leaves her family to move in with him ○ Children are added to the paternal unit ○ Results in Patrilocal Extended Family ▪ Three (3) or more generations of related men live together to form a shallow patrilineage ○ Virilocal Rule ▪ Wife must move to her husband's residence - Matrilocal Residence Husband Wife Wife's Family ○ Woman remains in her mother's household, husband leaves his family to move in with her ○ Children are added to the maternal unit ○ Results in Matrilocal Extended Family ▪ Three (3) or more generations of related women live together to form a shallow matrilineage ○ Uxorilocal Rule ▪ Husband must move to his wife's residence - Matrifocal Residence Woman Her Children ○ Woman and her children, and daughter's children, without coresident husband or other adult men ○ Results from economic conditions in which a man is unable to support a family - Avunculocal Residence One (1) Elder Men (Uncle) Sister's Son Wives Underage Children of all the Married Men ○ Steps 1. Married woman in husband's household (Virilocal Rule) 2. Children are raised 3. Children matured 4. Male children must relocate to mother's brother's (Uncle) household ○ Results in an Avunculocal Extended Family ▪ One (1) or more elder men, sister's son, and the wives and underage children of all the married men - UCSP Page 3 - Ambilocal Residence Husband Wife Wife's Family or Wife Husband Husband's Family ○ Married couple decides whether to join either the husband's or the wife's household of origin ○ May reside with either spouse's father or mother ○ Results in an Ambilocal Extended Family - Natalocal Residence Husband Husband's Family and (separate) Wife Wife's Family ○ Each partner remains with their own families of residences after marriage ○ If children remain in their mother's household, results to the formation of Domestic Matrilineages ▪ All male and female residents belong Kinship By Rituals - Compadrazgo ○ "godparenthood" ○ Ritualized form of forging co-parenthood or family ○ Relationship between the child's biological parents, their children, and people close to the parent but not related ~ Family ~ - Most basic unit of social organization - Linked together by: ○ Marriage ○ Blood Relations ○ Adoptions - Members of the household who are: ○ Related, to a specified degree ○ Through blood ○ Adoption ○ Marriage - Consists of at least two (2) members - Members of a family must be related - Cannot comprise more than one (1) household UCSP Page 4 - Cannot comprise more than one (1) household -- Types of Families -- - Nuclear Family ○ United by social ties ○ Two adults and their socially recognized children - Extended Family ○ Members go beyond the nuclear family - Blended Family ○ "Step Family, Reconstituted Family, or Complex Family" ○ Parents have a child or children from previous marital relationships ○ All members stay and congregate to form a new family unit ~ Household ~ - May consists of only one (1) person - Members of a multi-person household need not to be related to each other - Can contain: ○ One (1) family ○ One (1) or more families together w/ one (1) or more non-related persons ○ Entirely non-related persons -- Nuclear Household -- - Consists of entirely a single family nucleus - May be one of the following: ○ Married couple w/out children ○ Married couple w/ one or more unmarried children ○ Father w/ one or more unmarried children ○ Mother w/ one or more unmarried children -- Extended Household -- - May consist of the following ○ Single Family Nucleus and other persons related Two (2) or more family nuclei related to each other Two (2) or more family nuclei related to each other plus other people related to at least one family Two (2) or more people related to each other -- Reconstituted Families -- - "Blended Family" - Joining two (2) adults via: ○ Marriage UCSP Page 5  ○ Marriage ○ Cohabitation or Civil Partnership - Adults who have had previous relationships and children from them - Children will be known as "Step Children" -- Matrifocal Residence -- - "Transnational Family" - Geographical dispersion of a family because of the migration of one or more members - Family Hood ○ Feeling of collective welfare and unity by those that live separately across national border -- Types of Household -- - One-Person ○ One (1) person makes provision for their own food and other essentials - Multi-Person ○ Group of two (2) or more people living together ○ Makes common provision for food or other essentials for living ~ Political Organization ~ - Bands and tribes are considered the simplest political system - Acephalous: without a well-defined system of leadership -- Types of Political Organization -- - Bands ○ Often found in foraging societies ○ Associated with: ▪ Low Population Densities ▪ Distribution Systems based on Reciprocity ▪ Egalitarian Social Relations ○ Formed by several families living together based on: ▪ Marriage ▪ Friendship Affiliations ○ Members usually have a common interest or enemy ○ Kinship by blood or affinity - Tribes ○ Acephalous political system ○ Found among horticulturists and pastoralists societies ○ Larger and more sedentary population ○ Lack centralized political leadership ○ Egalitarian in nature UCSP Page 6  ○ Egalitarian in nature ○ Organized through the presence of pantribal associations or sodalities ▪ Council or Tribal Elders - Chiefdoms ○ More formal and permanent political structure ○ Political authority rests with individuals ○ Rely on feasting and tribute ○ Formal leadership exists and authority rests solely on the members of a select family - Simple Chiefdom ○ Central village or community ruled by a single family - Complex Chiefdom ○ Several simple chiefdoms ruled by a single paramount chief residing in a single paramount center - Nation ○ Groups of people that share a common history, language, tradition, customs, habits, and ethnicity ~ Political Legitimacy and Authority ~ - Legitimacy ○ Moral and ethical concept ○ Bestows one who possesses power the right to exercise such power ○ Perceived to be justified and proper - Authority ○ Power to make binding decisions and issue commands ○ It is necessary for a leader to possess authority - Traditional Authority ○ Legitimacy is derived from well-established customs, habits, and social structures - Charismatic Authority ○ Legitimacy emanates from charisma of the individual ○ Some can see it as: ▪ "Gift of Grace" ▪ possession of "Gravitas" ▪ Authority derived from a higher power - Rational-Legal/Bureaucratic Authority ○ Legitimacy from formal rules promulgated by the state through its fundamental and implementing laws UCSP Page 7 Non-state Institutions Wednesday, 19 June 2024 2:28 pm ~ Banks ~ - Institutions that conduct business purely on profit motive -- Primary Functions of a Bank -- - "Banking Functions" || Accepting deposits || - Bank collects deposits from the public Classification of Deposits - Savings ○ Encourages saving habit among the public ○ Rate of interest is low (5% per annum) ○ Withdrawals are allowed and subject to certain restrictions ○ Suitable to salary and wage earners ○ Account can be opened in single name or in joint names - Fixed ○ Lump sum amount deposited at one time for a specific period ○ Higher rate of interest, varies with the period of deposit ○ Withdrawals are not allowed before the expiry period ○ For those who have surplus funds - Current ○ Operated by businessmen ○ Withdrawals are freely allowed ○ No interest is paid ○ There are service charges ○ Account holders can get the benefit of overdraft facility - Recurring ○ Operated by salaried people and petty traders ○ Certain sum of money is periodically deposited into the bank ○ Withdrawals are permitted only after the expiry of a certain period ○ Higher rate of interest || Granting of Loans and Advances || - Advances loans to the business community and other members of the public - Rate charged is higher than what it pays on deposits - Difference in the interest rates, lending rates, and deposit rate is its profit Types of Loans and Advances UCSP Page 8  Types of Loans and Advances - Overdraft ○ Given to current account holders ○ No separate account is maintained ○ Certain amount is sanctioned as overdraft, which can be withdrawn within a certain period of time ○ Interest is charged on actual amount withdrawn ○ Overdraft facility is granted against a collateral security ○ Sanction to businessman and firms - Cash Credits ○ Client is allowed cash credit up to a specific limit fixed in advance ○ Can be given to current account holders as well as to others who do not have an account w/ bank ○ Separate cash credit account is maintained ○ Interest is charged on the amount withdrawn in excess of limit ○ Advance is given for a longer period ○ Large amount of loan is sanctioned than that of overdraft - Loans ○ Normally for short term or medium term ○ Repayment of money can be in the form of installments spread over a period of time or in a lump sum amount ○ Interest is charged on the actual amount sanctioned ○ Rate of interest may be slightly lower than overdrafts and cash credits ○ Normally secured against tangible assets of the company - Discount Bill of Exchange ○ Advance money by discounting or by purchasing bills of exchange (domestic and foreign bills) ○ Bank pays the bill amount to the drawer or the beneficiary by deducting usual discount charges ○ On maturity, bill is presented to the drawee or acceptor and the amount is collected -- Secondary Functions of a Bank -- - "Non-banking functions" || Agency Functions || - Act as representatives of clients to deal w/ other banks and institutions Includes the Following Transactions - Transfer of Funds ○ Transfer funds from one branch to another UCSP Page 9  ○ Transfer funds from one branch to another - Collection of Cheques ○ Collects the money of cheques through the clearing section of customers ○ Collects money of the bill of exchange - Periodic Payments ○ Bank makes periodic payments in respect of electricity bills, rent, etc. - Portfolio Management ○ Undertakes to purchase and sell the shares and debentures on behalf of clients ○ Accordingly debits or credits the account - Periodic Collections ○ Collects salary, pension, dividend, and other periodic collections || General Utility Functions || - Issue of Drafts and Letter of Credits ○ For transferring money from one place to another ○ Issues letter of credit, especially in case of import trade ○ Issues travelers' cheques - Locker Facility ○ Safe custody of valuable documents, gold ornaments, and other valuables - Underwriting of Shares ○ Underwrites shares and debentures through its merchant banking division - Dealing in Foreign Exchange ○ Commercial banks are allowed by Reserve Bank of India (RBI) to deal in foreign exchange - Project Reports ○ Prepare project reports on behalf of its clients - Social Welfare Programs ○ Undertakes social welfare programs such as adult literacy programs, public welfare campaigns, etc. ~ Corporations ~ - Most common form of business organizations - Chartered by a state and given many legal rights as an entity separate from its owners - Viewed as legal persons, which means they can be sued for not carrying out certain functions or responsibilities UCSP Page 10  carrying out certain functions or responsibilities - Characterized By: ○ Limited Liability of its Owners ○ Issuance of Shares of Easily Transferable Stock ○ Existence as a Going Concern - Incorporation ○ Process of becoming a corporation ○ Gives the company separate legal standing from its owners ○ Limited Liability ▪ Protects those owners from being personally liable in the event that the company is sued ○ Provides companies with a more flexible way to manage their ownership structure -- Corporation Responsibilities and Functions -- - Selecting a CEO ○ Board of directors are responsible for selecting a Chief Executive Officer (CEO) ○ Ensure that the management team and employees adhere to all policies and procedures instituted by the board of directors, lawyers, and the CEO ○ Typically select management teams or executives to help them run their organizations - Providing Continuity ○ Corporation must continue to function when people are fired, leave the company or pass away ○ Executives, CEO, etc. must be replaced by other competent and talented individuals - Managing Resources Effectively ○ Minimize waste ○ Manufacturing ▪ procure necessary raw material to create products ○ Wholesale Companies ▪ find suppliers ○ Corporations ▪ keep products flowing to ensure they are in stock when customers need - Increasing Profits ○ Corporations maximize shareholder's earning by selling more products ○ Keep Major Costs in Line: ▪ Production ▪ Labor UCSP Page 11  ▪ Labor ▪ Inventory ▪ Supplies ▪ Overhead (rent, utility, etc.) - Social Responsibilities ○ Many sponsor events or organizations in their community ○ Employees who collect monies for various diseases or illnesses, donating, etc. ○ Keeping residences safe from environmental issues ○ Apprise the community when accidents occur ○ Use greener or environmentally safe substance during manufacturing process ~ Cooperatives ~ - Autonomous associations of people - United voluntarily to meet their common economic, social, and cultural needs and aspirations - Jointly-owned and democratically-controlled enterprise ~ Trade Unions ~ - Based on membership of employees in various trades, occupations, and professions - Representation of its members at the workplace and in the wider society - Advance its interest though the process of rule-making and collective bargaining -- Functions of Trade Unions -- - Militant Functions ○ Achieve higher wages and better working conditions ○ Raise the status of workers as a part of industry ○ Protect labors against victimization and injustice - Fraternal Function ○ Generate self-confidence among workers ○ Encourage sincerity and discipline among workers ○ Provide opportunities for promotion and growth ○ Protect women workers against discrimination - Social Functions ○ Welfare activities provided to improve quality of work life ▪ Organization of Mutual Fund ▪ Credit Societies for Providing Housing ▪ Cooperative Stores UCSP Page 12  ▪ Cooperative Stores ▪ Cultural Programs ▪ Banking and Medical Facilities ▪ Training for Women ○ Education of Members in All Aspects of their Working Life ▪ Improvement of their Civic Life ▪ Awareness in the Environment ▪ Enhancement of their Knowledge about Issues ▪ Statutory and Other Rights and Responsibilities ▪ Worker's Participation in Management ○ Scheme and Procedure for Redressing their Grievances ▪ Assists the government in implementing the Workers' Education Scheme ○ Publication of Periodicals, Newsletters, or Magazines ▪ Making members aware of union policy and stand on certain principal issues and personnel matters ○ Research ▪ Provides update information to union negotiators at the bargaining table ▪ More practical than academic ▪ Concerns problems relating to daily affairs of the union ▪ Research Activities □ Collection and Analysis of Wage □ Preparation of Background Notes for Court Cases and Position Papers for Union Officials □ Collection and Analysis of Macro Data - Political Functions ○ Affiliating the union with a political party ○ Helps them enroll members, collect donations, and seek help during strikes and lockouts ~ International Organizations ~ - Established by formal political agreements - Recognized by law in their member countries - Not treated as a resident institutional units of the countries - Plays a central role in defining and reinforcing how the global economy works -- Three (3) Principal Bodies -- - World Bank ○ Set up to the help underdeveloped world ○ Integrate the poor countries into the international economy UCSP Page 13  ○ Integrate the poor countries into the international economy - International Monetary Fund (IMF) ○ Help stabilize currency exchange rates between nations ○ Come to the aid of countries with temporary liquidity needs - World Trade Organization (WTO) ○ Determines and enforces the rules regulating international trade ~ Transnational Advocacy Groups ~ - Advocates of a principled cause, ideas, and values (human rights or environment) - Do not work alone nor they are limited by national boundaries ~ Development Agencies ~ - Establish and support sustainability programs for the community - Economic Development Agency ○ Help create and support economic growth within a specified city, region, or state ○ Provides necessary resources and assistance UCSP Page 14 Institutions Wednesday, 19 June 2024 4:13 pm ~ Nonmarket Institutions ~ - Reciprocity, transfer, and redistribution - Does not entail the exchange of cash for the rendering of service or provision of goods - Reciprocity ○ Exchange of goods or labor ○ Direct barter or simultaneous exchange of goods, or gift exchange ○ Return for goods given or labor rendered is delayed - Transfer ○ Entails a redistribution of income ○ Not matched by the actual exchange of goods and services - Redistribution ○ Combination of the features of transfer and reciprocity ○ Economic exchange involves the collection of goods from members, pooling these goods, then redistributing the goods among the same members ~ Market Institutions ~ - Market System ○ Type of economic system ○ Allows the free flow of goods between and among private individuals ○ Very limited participation from the government - Invisible Hand ○ Integrates both the idea of self-interest and competition ○ Brings about a socially optimum results even in the absence of government intervention - Market ○ Mechanism that brings buyers and sellers together for the desired transaction - Prices ○ Signaling device to indicate the value of a good or service - Specialization ○ Requirement for market economy ○ Ability to produce goods and services efficiently - Human Specialization UCSP Page 15 - Human Specialization ○ Division of labor ○ Contributes to efficiency by taking advantage of the differences in every person's abilities - Barter ○ Swapping of goods for goods ○ Traditional means of exchange - Market Transaction ○ Parties who sell their goods and services in exchange for cash - Market Economy ○ Production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services - Free-Market Economy ○ Price of a good or service is determined by the forces of supply and demand ~ State-Market Relationships ~ - The state through the government, regulates prices to protect the interest of the consuming public - Basic Commodities such as food are subject to price ceilings - Price of Electricity and Mobile Services are subjected to government regulation - Labor ○ Considered a commodity ○ Sellers of the service are the workers ○ Consumers are factories and producers - State ○ Comes in to regulate the prices of service ○ Exercises monopoly of violence or legitimate control over use of force within its territory - Minimum Wage ○ Determined by regional wage ○ Blow which no employer would be allowed to pay their worker - Command Economy ○ Socialist economy ○ Government takes over the functions of the market in producing, distributing essential goods and services ○ Relies on central government - Taxes ○ Compulsory contributions to government coffers ○ Normally levied on: UCSP Page 16  ○ Normally levied on: ▪ Worker's Income ▪ Business Profits ▪ Consumption of Goods and Services ○ To raise revenues for government spending ~ Market and Economic Organizations ~ - Include the corporate environmental users - Financial institutions such as banks, etc. - Provide funds to finance the implementation of policy through the development projects and programs by the government as well as the private sector - The Bank ○ Financial institutions that lends money to both public and private organizations - Corporation ○ A broad category of non-state organizations ○ Represents a company or group of people ○ Engages in lawful activity about a public function - Stock Corporation ○ Ownership is through stockholders who own particular shares - Nonstock Corporation ○ Owned by members that join the organization - Cooperative or Coop ○ Autonomous association ○ Voluntary towards the attainment of common economic, social, and cultural needs or aspirations - Trade or Labor Union ○ Organization of workers ○ Protect the welfare of its members ○ Negotiating collectively with employers for better compensations, etc. ~ Civil Society Organizations ~ - Academic and Science-Based Organizations ○ Universities, schools, colleges ○ Private pooling firms ○ Private think tanks and consultancy groups - Mass Media ○ Print, radio, television UCSP Page 17  ○ Print, radio, television - Religious Organization ○ Organized religion seen in church and congregation - Nongovernmental Organization ○ Third-party mediating organizations - People's Organization ○ Grassroots-based organizations composed of people who are really in the community and directly involved ~ International Organization ~ - Established by a treaty or other instrument - Governed by international law - Possessing its own international legal by personality - North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), United Nations (UN), World Health Organizations (WHO) ~ Transnational Advocacy Group (TAO) ~ - self-organized advocacy groups undertaking voluntary actions across state borders - Pursuit of what they deem the wider public interest - Nonstate Actors - NGOs - Transnational Advocacy Networks - Collection of individuals or groups characterized by their fluid and open relations w/ each other - United by their commitment to work and defend certain issues and causes that are relevant across several nation ~ Development Agencies ~ - Formed as a response to crises like way damage and industrial decline - With hope of stimulating economic development, post-war UCSP Page 18 Education and Health Systems Wednesday, 19 June 2024 4:44 pm ~ Functions of Educations Towards Individuals ~ - Development of Inborn Potentialities ○ Helps to develop inborn potentialities of a child - Modifying Behavior ○ Modify the past behavior through learning and through different agency of education - Holistic Development ○ All-round development of child-physical, mental, social, emotional, and spiritual - Preparing for the Future ○ When a child completes school, they will get a good-paying job where their knowledge will be utilized - Developing Personality ○ Developed physically, intellectually, morally, socially, aesthetically, and spiritually - Helping for Adjustability ○ Ability to adapt to our environment and change it through education ~ Functions of Education towards Society ~ - Social Change and Control ○ Society is progressive and dynamic ○ Old traditions, customs, are preserved and transmitted with the situations ○ Keeps us abreast w/ the advancement in science and technology - Reconstruction of Experiences ○ Education is a life-long process ○ Reconstruct the experience and adjust w/ the environment - Development of Social and Moral Values ○ Lack of education can lead to Narrow-Mindedness ▪ Tendency to fend for themselves at any cost ○ Allows moral and social values to be instilled among members of society - Providing Opportunity or Equality ○ Value of giving equal opportunities in all aspects regardless of UCSP Page 19  ○ Value of giving equal opportunities in all aspects regardless of caste, creed, color, sex, and religion ~ Functions of Education towards Nation ~ - Inculcation of Civic and Social Responsibility ○ Understand their rights and duties as citizens in a democratic country - Training for Leadership ○ Leadership qualities are developed when they participate in all spheres of social, political, religious, and educational activities - National Integration ○ Trains people for unity and democracy - Total National Development ○ Develops all aspect of social, economic, cultural, spiritual, moral, educational, etc. ~ Health System ~ - Sum of all the organizations, institutions, and resources whose primary purpose is to improve health - Needs staff, funds, information, supplies, transport, communications, and overall guidance and direction - Provide services that are responsive and financially fair ~ Cross-Cultural Health Systems ~ -- Culture-Specific Syndrome and Illness -- - Combination of psychiatric and somatic symptoms - Body absorbs social stress and manifests symptoms of suffering - Recognizable disease only within a specific society or culture - Health problem w/ a collection of signs and symptoms that is restricted/associated to a particular culture or a limited number of cultures - Social factors such as stress, fear or shock are often the underlying causes - Biophysical symptoms may be involved and culture-specific syndromes can be fatal - Examples: ○ Nervous Attack (Hispanics) ▪ From evil spirits ○ Amok (Malaysians, Laotians, Filipinos, Polynesians, Papua New Guineans, Puerto Ricans) UCSP Page 20  Papua New Guineans, Puerto Ricans) ▪ Outburst of violence ○ Brain Fag (African Americans) ▪ Problem w/ concentration and thinking ○ Ghost Sickness (American Indians) ▪ Weakness, dizziness, fainting, anxiety, hallucinations, confusion and loss of appetite ▪ From the action of witches and evil forces ○ Wind or Cold Illness (Hispanics, Asians) ▪ Fear of cold and wind -- Ethnomedicine -- - Study of cross-cultural health systems - Include topics such as perceptions of the body, culture, and disability, and change in indigenous or "traditional" healing systems - Non-Western Health Systems or Primitive Medicine for Western Biomedicine (WBM) - Western Biomedicine ○ Health approached based on modern Western science ○ Emphasizes technology in diagnosing and treating health problems -- Perceptions of the Body -- - Western Biomedicine ○ Mind and body are distinct - Ethnomedicine ○ Body is a bounded physical unity -- Defining and Classifying Health Problems (System of Diagnosis) -- - Western Biomedicine ○ Based on scientific understanding ○ Disease ▪ Biological health problem that is objective and universal (bacteria, infection, or broken arm) ○ Illness ▪ Culturally specific perceptions and experiences of a health problem - Ethnomedicine ○ Basis for labelling and classifying health problems such as UCSP Page 21  ○ Basis for labelling and classifying health problems such as cause, vector, affected body part, symptoms, or combination of these ○ Knowledgeable elders are keepers and pass it down through oral tradition ○ Based on natural, socioeconomic, psychological, or supernatural causes -- Prevention -- - Based on either religious or secular beliefs - Exist cross-culturally for preventing misfortune, suffering, and illness - Examples of Ritual Health Protection Worldwide ○ Charms ○ Spells ○ Sacred Strings -- Healing Systems -- - Western Biomedicine ○ Humoral Healing ▪ Emphasizes balance among natural elements within the body - Ethnomedicine ○ Community Healing ▪ Emphasizes social context as a key component ▪ Carried out within the public domain UCSP Page 22 Education and Health Systems V2 Wednesday, 19 June 2024 5:25 pm ~ Education ~ - Social institutions that formally socializes members of society - Very important support pillar in society - Process through which skills, knowledge, and values are transmitted from teachers to learners - Brings about continuity, which is an important factor for development - Formal Education ○ Based in the classroom ○ Provided by trained teaching and non-teaching personnel ○ Has approved curriculum, course outline, prescribed number of sessions, lesson, and authentic assessments and outputs - Nonformal Education ○ Organized educational activity that takes place outside a formal setup ○ Usually flexible, learner-centered, contextualized, and uses a participatory approach -- Manifest and Latent Function of Education -- - Manifest (Primary/Intended Functions) ○ Socialization ○ Transmission of culture, skills, and values - Latent (Secondary/Unintended Functions) ○ Venues for Expanding People's Network ○ Ability to Work in Groups (Leader or Member) -- Goals and Functions of Education in the 21st Century World -- - Transmission of Cultural Heritage ○ Communication and honing of knowledge, language, science ○ Reinforced by Family - Selection of Social Roles and Training ○ Provides new experiences and offers alternatives and a wide selection of roles ○ Reinforced by Religion - Integration and Mainstreaming of Subcultures and Identities ○ Functions as a social control mechanism that brings recalcitrant UCSP Page 23  ○ Functions as a social control mechanism that brings recalcitrant members back to fold ○ Reinforced by State/Government/Religion - Source of Social and Cultural Innovations ○ Place where young people are enjoined to be creative with others ○ Reinforced by Peers/State/Family ~ Health ~ -- Cultural Constructs of Health and the Filipino Attributions of Illnesses -- - The Philippines has its set of language to refer to health and illness, most of which pertains to either the corporeal body or spirit - Usog ○ Discomfort brought about by a stranger or visitor ○ Evil Eye (masamang mata) ○ Evil Wing (masamang hanging) - Bughat or Binat ○ Ailments a mother experiences after giving birth or after suffering an abortion or miscarriage -- Filipino Theories of Illness -- - Physical and mental health and illnesses are viewed holistically as an equilibrium model - Mystical Causes ○ often associated w/ experiences or behaviors such as retribution from ancestors for unfulfilled obligations - Personalistic Causes ○ attributed to social punishment or retribution by supernatural beings - Naturalistic Causes ○ Nature events ○ Excessive stress ○ Incompatible foods and drugs ○ Infection ○ Familial Susceptibility - Bacterial/Viral Causes ○ Effects of these entities invading the body and making the body weak and defenseless UCSP Page 24  -- Cultural Health Actors -- - Albularyo ○ General practitioner ○ Knowledgeable about folkloric modalities ○ Usually especially versed in the use of medicinal herbs - Hilot ○ Manghihilot ▪ Specializes techniques and treatments applicable to sprains, fractures, and musculoskeletal conditions ○ Nagpapaanak ▪ Prenatal visits and delivering babies ▪ Performs suob rituals - Mangluluop ○ Diagnostic techniques - Medico ○ Merges age-old folkloric modalities w/ ingredients of western medicine UCSP Page 25 Religion and Belief System Wednesday, 19 June 2024 5:47 pm ~ Christianity ~ - World's biggest religion (2.2 billion followers) - Based on the teachings of Jesus Christ ○ Lived in the Holy Land 2,00 years ago - Christianity spread to most parts of the globe through its missionary activity - Believed that Jesus rose from the dead and appeared to his disciples (followers) to show everyone that there is another life with one (1), eternal, loving God Cross Israel (Judea) Jesus Christ Bible Symbol Origin Founder Sacred Text ~ Islam ~ - 2nd most popular religion in the world (thousand million followers) - Complete way of life rather than a religion - Began in Arabia - Revealed to humanity by Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) - Followers are called Muslims - Only one (1) God, called Allah - Mainly followed in the Middle East, Asia, and the North of Africa Crescent Moon Saudi Arabia Prophet Qu'ran and Star (Mecca) Muhammad Symbol Origin Founder Sacred Text ~ Hinduism ~ - "Sanatana Dharma" meaning "the eternal law" - 3rd most popular religion (750 million followers) - Originated in Northern India, near the river Indus 400 years ago - Oldest existing religion dating to prehistoric times - Practiced by more than 80% of India's Population - No founder, developed out of Brahmanism - Matter of practice rather than of beliefs - More about what you do, than what you believe - Universal soul or God called Brahman UCSP Page 26 - Universal soul or God called Brahman - There is a part of Brahman in everyone called Atman - Believed in Reincarnation ○ Soul is eternal and lives many lifetimes, in one body after another ○ Soul is sometimes born in a human body, animal or plant - All forms of life contains a soul - All souls have a chance to experience life in different forms - Samsara ○ Going through the cycle of repeated births and deaths (reincarnation) - Believe that existence of cycle is governed by Karma India From Vedas/Upanishads Brahmanism Origin Founder Sacred Text ~ Buddhism ~ - Began in Northeastern India - Based on the teachings of Siddharta Gautama - 2,500 years old - Followed by 350 million Buddhists worldwide - Main religion in many Asian countries - About suffering and the need to get rid of it - Nirvana ○ Most enlightened and blissful state one can achieve ○ State without suffering - Believed that Buddha saw the truth about what the world is like - Do not believe that Buddha was a god but a human being as well - Believed that he was important because he reached Enlightenment and chose to teach other people how to reach it too North East Siddharta Gautama Tripitaka India (The Buddha) Origin Founder Sacred Text ~ Institutionalized Religion ~ - Formed by a sect - Not limitless and it is closed - "Organized Religion" UCSP Page 27  - "Organized Religion" - Belief systems and rituals are systematically arranged and formally established - Characterized by an official doctrine (or dogma) - Hierarchical or bureaucratic leadership structure - Codification of rules and practices - World's largest religious groups - Organizations which one can legally or officially affiliate oneself or not ~ Separation of Church & State in the Philippines ~ - Art II. Sec. 6 ○ Separation of church and state shall be inviolable - Art II. Sec. 5 ○ Now law shall be made respecting an establishment of religion - Art. VI Sec. 5 (2) ○ Party-lists representatives to represent … except the religious sector - Ar. IX (C) Sec. 2 (5) ○ Religious denominations and sects cannot be a political party UCSP Page 28 Social Stratification Wednesday, 19 June 2024 6:14 pm ~ Why Does Social Stratification Exist? ~ - Trait of Society, Not Simply a Reflection of Individual Differences ○ Biological qualities do not determine one's superiority and inferiority - Persists Over Generations ○ Very old, present even in the small wandering bonds - Universal ○ Happens everywhere ○ Takes different forms across different societies - Consequential ○ Two Important Consequences ▪ Life Chances ▪ Lifestyle - Involves Not Just Inequality, but Beliefs as Well ○ Inequality is rooted in society's philosophy ○ Not unform in all societies ~ Class and Caste System ~ - General forms of stratification - Special Type of Stratification (Caste in India) ○ Ancient Aryas were divided ▪ Brahmins ▪ Kshatriyas ▪ Vaishyas ▪ Sudras ▪ Harijan - Class System (Greece and Italy) ○ Greeks were divided into freemen and slaves ○ Romans were divided into partisans and plebians - Caste ○ "closed system" ○ Hereditary endogamous social group ○ Ascribed on the basis of birth ○ Cannot advance and improve their social status - Class ○ "open system" UCSP Page 29  ○ "open system" ○ Dominant in modern society ○ Depends upon achievement and ability to use them to advantage ○ Movement from one status to another has no barrier ~ Major Premises of Social Stratification ~ - Wealth ○ Material possessions defined as valuable - Power ○ Degree to which individuals or groups can impose their will on others - Prestige ○ Amount of esteem or honor ~ Perspectives on Social Stratification ~ - Functionalism ○ Kingley Davis and Wilbert Moore ○ Social inequality plays a vital role in the smooth operation of society ○ Davis-Moore thesis ▪ Social stratification has beneficial consequences for the operation of society - Conflict Theory ○ Karl Marx and Max Weber ○ Disagree that social stratification is functional for society ○ Benefits some at the expense of others ○ Two Classes of People (Karl Marx) ▪ Bourgeoisie (Owners) ▪ Proletariat (Workers) ○ Oppression and misery would eventually drive the working majority to come together and overthrow capitalism ○ Social Standing Parts/Dimensions (Max Weber) ▪ Class - determined mainly by economic standing or wealth ▪ Party - equivalent to political power ▪ Status - social prestige and honor ~ Social Inequality ~ - Unequal opportunities and rewards for different social positions or statuses - Differences in income, resources, power, and status within and between societies - Maintained by those in powerful positions via institutions and social UCSP Page 30 - Maintained by those in powerful positions via institutions and social process -- Measure of Social Inequality -- - Inequality of Conditions ○ Unequal distribution of income, wealth, and material goods - Inequality of Opportunities ○ Unequal distribution of life chances across individuals ~ Social Equality: Heart of Sociology ~ - Social Inequality ○ Patterns of unequal access to social resources ○ Reflects innate differences between individuals ○ By pursuing it, the discipline can give a face to social realities given birth by various forces pushing people in all sorts of directions ~ Context of Social Desirables ~ - Ascribed Status ○ Involuntary ○ Race, ethnicity, and social class - Achieved Status ○ Accomplished in the course of our lives ○ Reflects our work and effort - Availability ○ Presence, absence, or scarcity of social desirables - Accessibility ○ Actual ways and means of availing the resources - Social Mobility ○ Movement of individuals within or between layers in an open system ○ Absolute Social Mobility ▪ People end up in a different layer ○ Relative Social Mobility ▪ Difference in probability of attaining a certain outcome, regardless of overall structure changes ○ Structural Mobility ▪ Forced mobility ▪ Results from a change in the distribution of all or any of the statuses within society ~ Social Equality ~ UCSP Page 31  ~ Social Equality ~ - Desirable attribute in a democratic and civilized society - Social Capital ○ Ability of a collective to act together to pursue a common goal - Political Capital ○ Trust, goodwill, and influence possessed by a political actor - Symbolic Capital ○ Resources that one possesses ○ Function of honor, prestige or recognition - Gender and Sexual Orientation ○ Source of inequality ○ Structural bias mainly due to cultural beliefs in favor of men - Ethnic Minorities ○ Subjected to discrimination ○ Suffer from dominant cultural majorities ○ Cultural practices are subjects of ridicule ○ Physical appearances and demeanor ear for them over forms of discrimination through stereotypes ○ Victims of development aggression - Persons with Disabilities (PWD) ○ Discriminated and their physical impairment becomes basis for them to be denied equal opportunity in employment UCSP Page 32 Cultural, Social, and Political Change Wednesday, 19 June 2024 6:50 pm ~ Sources of Change in Society ~ - Innovation ○ Social creation and institutionalization of new ideas, products, processes or structures ○ Example ▪ Technological Advancement - Diffusions ○ Spread of innovations from one social setting to another ○ One group borrows something from another group ○ Example ▪ Visibility of K-POP culture in the Philippines - Assimilation ○ Process where some of the "majority community's" cultural aspects are absorbed in such a manner that the cultural aspects get MITIGATED OR LOST ○ Example ▪ English-only policy - Acculturation ○ Cultural aspects of the "majority community" are adapted WITHOUT LOSING the traditions and customs of the "minority community" ○ Example ▪ Use of ethnomedicine despite the spread of western biomedicine - Social Contradictions and Tensions ○ Includes inter-ethnic conflicts, class struggle, armed conflict, terrorism, protests, gender issues, etc. ○ Example ▪ Leftists (rebels) ~Effects of Changes in Society ~ - Change in Our Mode of Living and Lifestyle ○ Advancement of technology enables people to live in greater security and comfort than ever before - Development ○ Viewed as an important indicator of the importance of the quality of life of people UCSP Page 33  quality of life of people - Modernization ○ Far-reaching process by which a society moves from traditional towards the characteristics of most developed societies ~ Theories on Changes in Society ~ - Evolutionary Theory ○ Societies evolved from the simple and primitive to the more complex and advanced form - Conflict Theory ○ Societies progress as oppressed groups struggle to improve their lives - Cyclical Theories ○ Suggest that every society is born, matures, decays, and eventually dies - Structural Functionalism Theory ○ Society is a balanced system of institution ~ Things We Can Do ~ - Weigh the Advantages and Disadvantages of Changes - Adapt Instead of Resist - Stand Firm with your Principles UCSP Page 34 Changes V2 Wednesday, 19 June 2024 7:02 pm ~ Cultural Osmosis and Patterns of Change ~ - Cultural Osmosis ○ Process of gradual or unconscious assimilation of ideas, knowledge, practices along and across cultures - Cultural Diffusions ○ Spread of culture from one group to another - Innovation ○ Process of translating new ideas into something that can create value - Acculturation ○ Minority adopts cultural aspects of the majority WITHOUT LOSING its traditions and customs - Assimilation ○ Majority community's cultural aspects are absorbed and the minority's cultural aspects get MITIGATED OR LOST ~ Global Warming and Climate Change ~ - Global Warming ○ Unusually rapid increase in Earth's average surface temperature - Climate Change ○ Long-term alteration of temperature and typical weather patterns in a place ~ Globalization, Transnational, Migration and OFWs ~ - Globalization ○ Spread of products, technology, information, and jobs across national borders and cultures ○ Interdependence of nations around the globe fostered through free trade - Transnationalism ○ Diffusions and extension of social, political, economic process ○ Between and beyond sovereign jurisdictional boundaries of nation- states - Migration ○ Movement of either people or animals from one area to another UCSP Page 35  ○ Movement of either people or animals from one area to another - Overseas Filipino Worker (OFW) ○ Terms used to refer to Filipino migrant workers ○ People with Filipino citizenship who reside in another country for a limited period of employment ~ Inclusive Citizenship and Governance ~ - State ○ Form of political organization ○ Consists of governmental institutions ○ Capable of maintaining order ○ Implements rules or laws over a population in a given territory - Civil Society ○ Web of autonomous associations independent of the state - Governance ○ Process by which both the state and civil society participate in the maintenance of social and political order - Decentralization ○ Process wherein power from higher levels is transferred to lower levels ○ Enhances responsiveness to local needs by bringing the loci of decision-making to local levels - Administrative Decentralization ○ Administrative and managerial responsibilities are handed over from the national level units to subnational or local offices - Delegation ○ Administrative and managerial responsibilities are handed over from a government agency to a parastatal - Privatization ○ Transfer of administrative and managerial responsibilities to a private entity - Devolution of Political Decentralization ○ Entails the transfer of power and authority from central government institutions to local power to local political authorities - Adaptive co-management ○ Fusion of two developmental approaches ○ Adaptive Management and Collaborative Management - Adaptive Management ○ Allows room for participation ○ Implies a dynamic, recursive process of actions and feedbacks UCSP Page 36  ○ Implies a dynamic, recursive process of actions and feedbacks ○ Can only be achieved if spaces are opened for various actors - Collaborative or Co-Management ○ Enjoins communities to enter into collaborative management arrangements with other agencies ~ Social Movements ~ - Developing collective action of a significant portion of members of a major social category - Consists of a collective behavior that is ideologically inspired, idealistic, and action-oriented -- Environmentalism -- - Emerges as a reaction to the excesses of modernity and capitalism - Ecocentric Environmentalism ○ Humans and societies they create are different from nature ○ Humans must adapt to and live in harmony with surroundings - Technocentric Environmentalism ○ Starts from perspective of controlling and managing the environment that is separate from humans and their social, economic, technological, and political systems - Material Environmentalism ○ Protecting the environment as a source of livelihood and economic benefits - Non-materialist Environmentalism ○ Protecting the environment for its cultural and symbolic values -- Feminism -- - Addresses the situation of women in society - Distinguished by the analyses of the logic of domination ○ Pattern of thinking in which two groups are distinguished in terms of some characteristics - Liberal Feminism ○ All humans possess the same nature - Marxist Feminism ○ Women are oppressed because they are relegated to the domestic sphere, and therefore dependent forms of labor - Socialist Feminism ○ Complex web of social relationships underlies the oppression of women - Radical Feminism ○ Biological and sexual differences are the basis of women's oppression UCSP Page 37  oppression - Cultural ecofeminism ○ Women's perspective historically have been and remain closely identified with nature Feedback hehe pls: click! 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